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DNA sequencing Why? – Identifies Organisms Introduces Biological Machines

Explore the genetic code through DNA sequencing and analysis. Learn about gene sequences, variations, and inheritance patterns. Discover the basics of genomics and its practical applications in various fields.

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DNA sequencing Why? – Identifies Organisms Introduces Biological Machines

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ATGTTCTATCCCATTCATTTTGACGTTATTGTTGTTGGAGGAGGTCATGCTGGGACAGAAGCAGCTTTGGCTTCTGCTAGGATGCAATGTAATACGCTTTTGATTACTCATAATATTGATACTCTTGGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTTGTTATATTACCCATACTAATAACAAAACACATGAAATAGTTAGATCAAATTTATATCAGAGTCCTATGTATACAGGTTTAATAAAAGGAATAGCACCTCGGTATTGTCCATCTATAGAAGACAAAATAACTCGTTTTTCAGATCGTAATGCTCATCAAATTTTTTTAGAACCTGAAGGTTTGACAACACCTGAAGTATATCTTAATGGTATTTCTACTAGCTTACCTTTTTGTGTACAAATGCAAATGATTAAATCAATTCAGGGATTAGAGAATGCTTGTATAATTAGGCCAGGTTATGCTATTGAATACGATTTTTTTGATCCTCGTGATTTAAAATTAACATTAGAGAGTAAAATTATTTCTGGATTATTTTTTTCTGGTCAAATTAATGGTACTACTGGTTATGAAGAAGCAGCTGCCCAAGGATTATTGGCCGGAATTAATGCAGCTAGGTTTTCCAAAAATAAAGAAGGATGGTACCCTAGAAGAGATCAGGCATATTTAGGGGTGCTTGTAGATGATCTCTGTACACATGGAACAGAAGAACCTTATCGTATGTTTACTTCGCGTGCTGAATATCGTCTGTCTTTACGTGAGGATAATGCTGATTTAAGATTAACTGAAATCGCGCGACAGTTAGGTTTGATAGATGAGTCACGGTGGAAAGCTTTTTGTTGCAAAAAAGAAAACATTGAAAAAGAACGTCAGAGATTACGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGTTTATGTCAGGAATCAAAGGCACTTCCCAAGAATATATTGGACATCATTTATATCATCTGCAATTTGATTTAAGTACTTTTTCGTTAGTGAGCTCGGAGAATACTTCTTCATTCTGGGTATTAAATGTAGATTCGATGTTTTTTTCAATATTATTGGCTACTTTATTTTTATTAATTTTCGGTCGTTTGGCTACAGTGGCAACTTATGCGGTTCCCACAAAACTGCAAGTGTTTATTGAGTTAGTAATATTGTTTATTGATAGCAATGTAAAAGATATGTTTCATGGTAAAAATAAACTAATTGCGCCATTATCTATGACGGTTTTTGTTTGGATTTTTTTAATGAATACCATGGATTTATTTCCCATAGATTTATTTCCTGCTATAGCTAAATTGTTAGGATTACCTGCTTTACGTGTTGTGCCGTCTGCCGATGTGAATATCACTTCTTCGCTAGCTTTAAATGTATTTGTACTTGTTATGTACTACAATATTTACGTTAATGGCGTTCATGGTTTTATTAAAGGACTGATGTATCATCCATTTAATCATCCAACATGTATTCCTATTAATTTTATTATTGAAGTTGTTAGTTTGTTATCTAAACCAGTATCACTTAGTCTTAGATTATTTGGCAATATGTATTCTGGTGAGTTGATTTTTATTTTGATATCTGGTTTATTACCATGGTGGGGACAATGGGTTTTAAATTTACCATGGGCTATTTTTCATATTTTAGTCGTTACATTACAGGCTTTTATTTTTATGGTTTTAACGGTGATTTATTTATCTACAGCCCATGACTCCTGTTAAAATGAATCATGTAATACAGAAGATTGCAGAGAGGTTATTATGGAACATTTAAATTTTGATATGTTATATATTGCTGCAGCAATAATGATGGGATTAGCAGCAATTGGAGCGGCTATCGGTATTGGCATCTTAGGTAGTAAATTTTTAGAGGGGGCTGCACGTCAACCAGATCTCATTCCGATCCTTCGAACTCAGTTTTTTATTGTTATGGGATTGGTTGATGCAATACCAATGATTACTGTAGGTCTTGGTTTGTATGTGATGTTTTCTGCGGTTTAACAATGAAAATTAATTGCATGTATTTATTATATTGATTATTAAATATCAGGATTTGCGCTGTGAATCTTAATGCAACAATATTAGGTCAAACTATTTCATTTGTTTTGTTTGTTTGGTTTTGTATGAAGTATGTGTGGTATCCATTTATATCTATTATTGAGAAACGCCAAAAAGAAATTTCTGATAATTTAGTTTCTGCTACTCATGCCAAAACAGAATCTGAGCGTGTCAATGCTGAAGCTTTGCTTTGTTTGAGACAGGCTCGGGTCAAAGCTCAAGAAATTATAAAACAAGCAAATAAATGTAAAATGCAAATAATTAATGAAGCTAAACATGAAGCTGAAAAGGAGCAAAGTAGAATTTTATCTCAAGCGCGAGAACAGATTATTTATGAAAGAAAACGTGTTACTGACGAATTAAGAAAGCAAATTAGCGAACTTGTAATTGAGGGTACAGAGAAAGTTATAGAACATTCTATAAATGAAATGATTGATATAGATCTTTTAAATAATATTATTAATACGTTGTCATATAAGGATTAGATGTCTAGTATGCTTGTGGTTGCGCGTACGTATGCTCAAGCTATATTTGATATAGCTGTAGAACAGAAAAATATAAACAAGTGGAAATCAGTTCTTGATTTATTTTCTGAGATTAGTCTAAATAGACTAGTACAATCTTTATTTTTTAGATGTTTAGAACCAAAAAGATTGTCAGATATATTTATTGCTATTTGTGAAGATTACCAAAAGAAACAAGTTGATACCTTCAGTAAAAATATAATCTATATTATGGCGGAAAATAATCGTTTATTATTATTACCAATTGTATTTAAAGAGTTTACTTATTTATGTTCTATATATGTTCATACTGTAGAAATAGAAATTATCTCTGCTTGGCCTTTGAAGTATAATCAGCTGAAAAAAATTACTGATATAATGGCTAAACGTTTATCTAAAACAGTGAATCCAGTACACAAAGTAGATAAAGATATATTGGCTGGTGTAATTATTCGTATTGGAGATACTGTGATTGATGGAAGTATACGTGGACGTATTTTTCGCTTAAATCACGTACTACAATCTTAATATTTTAACAGTAGTTAAAAGGTATAAACAAAAGATTATGCAATTAAATTCAAATGAAATTTCAGATAATGGAGAAGTTATTATTAATGATTTAAAGTTATTTTATAATAAAGCTAGACAAACTAAAATTACAGAAGAACTTACAGAAATTGTTTCAGGAGCTTCTGTAATATAAACTTAAAAGATAGTTAGAGGTATAATTAATATGAGTTCTGGAAAAATTGTCCAGGTTATTGGAGCGGTGGTTGATGTTGCGTTCAATCAAGATGTGGTACCGACTGTATACCATGCACTTGAGGTGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTATGTTCTATCCCATTCATTTTGACGTTATTGTTGTTGGAGGAGGTCATGCTGGGACAGAAGCAGCTTTGGCTTCTGCTAGGATGCAATGTAATACGCTTTTGATTACTCATAATATTGATACTCTTGGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTTGTTATATTACCCATACTAATAACAAAACACATGAAATAGTTAGATCAAATTTATATCAGAGTCCTATGTATACAGGTTTAATAAAAGGAATAGCACCTCGGTATTGTCCATCTATAGAAGACAAAATAACTCGTTTTTCAGATCGTAATGCTCATCAAATTTTTTTAGAACCTGAAGGTTTGACAACACCTGAAGTATATCTTAATGGTATTTCTACTAGCTTACCTTTTTGTGTACAAATGCAAATGATTAAATCAATTCAGGGATTAGAGAATGCTTGTATAATTAGGCCAGGTTATGCTATTGAATACGATTTTTTTGATCCTCGTGATTTAAAATTAACATTAGAGAGTAAAATTATTTCTGGATTATTTTTTTCTGGTCAAATTAATGGTACTACTGGTTATGAAGAAGCAGCTGCCCAAGGATTATTGGCCGGAATTAATGCAGCTAGGTTTTCCAAAAATAAAGAAGGATGGTACCCTAGAAGAGATCAGGCATATTTAGGGGTGCTTGTAGATGATCTCTGTACACATGGAACAGAAGAACCTTATCGTATGTTTACTTCGCGTGCTGAATATCGTCTGTCTTTACGTGAGGATAATGCTGATTTAAGATTAACTGAAATCGCGCGACAGTTAGGTTTGATAGATGAGTCACGGTGGAAAGCTTTTTGTTGCAAAAAAGAAAACATTGAAAAAGAACGTCAGAGATTACGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGTTTATGTCAGGAATCAAAGGCACTTCCCAAGAATATATTGGACATCATTTATATCATCTGCAATTTGATTTAAGTACTTTTTCGTTAGTGAGCTCGGAGAATACTTCTTCATTCTGGGTATTAAATGTAGATTCGATGTTTTTTTCAATATTATTGGCTACTTTATTTTTATTAATTTTCGGTCGTTTGGCTACAGTGGCAACTTATGCGGTTCCCACAAAACTGCAAGTGTTTATTGAGTTAGTAATATTGTTTATTGATAGCAATGTAAAAGATATGTTTCATGGTAAAAATAAACTAATTGCGCCATTATCTATGACGGTTTTTGTTTGGATTTTTTTAATGAATACCATGGATTTATTTCCCATAGATTTATTTCCTGCTATAGCTAAATTGTTAGGATTACCTGCTTTACGTGTTGTGCCGTCTGCCGATGTGAATATCACTTCTTCGCTAGCTTTAAATGTATTTGTACTTGTTATGTACTACAATATTTACGTTAATGGCGTTCATGGTTTTATTAAAGGACTGATGTATCATCCATTTAATCATCCAACATGTATTCCTATTAATTTTATTATTGAAGTTGTTAGTTTGTTATCTAAACCAGTATCACTTAGTCTTAGATTATTTGGCAATATGTATTCTGGTGAGTTGATTTTTATTTTGATATCTGGTTTATTACCATGGTGGGGACAATGGGTTTTAAATTTACCATGGGCTATTTTTCATATTTTAGTCGTTACATTACAGGCTTTTATTTTTATGGTTTTAACGGTGATTTATTTATCTACAGCCCATGACTCCTGTTAAAATGAATCATGTAATACAGAAGATTGCAGAGAGGTTATTATGGAACATTTAAATTTTGATATGTTATATATTGCTGCAGCAATAATGATGGGATTAGCAGCAATTGGAGCGGCTATCGGTATTGGCATCTTAGGTAGTAAATTTTTAGAGGGGGCTGCACGTCAACCAGATCTCATTCCGATCCTTCGAACTCAGTTTTTTATTGTTATGGGATTGGTTGATGCAATACCAATGATTACTGTAGGTCTTGGTTTGTATGTGATGTTTTCTGCGGTTTAACAATGAAAATTAATTGCATGTATTTATTATATTGATTATTAAATATCAGGATTTGCGCTGTGAATCTTAATGCAACAATATTAGGTCAAACTATTTCATTTGTTTTGTTTGTTTGGTTTTGTATGAAGTATGTGTGGTATCCATTTATATCTATTATTGAGAAACGCCAAAAAGAAATTTCTGATAATTTAGTTTCTGCTACTCATGCCAAAACAGAATCTGAGCGTGTCAATGCTGAAGCTTTGCTTTGTTTGAGACAGGCTCGGGTCAAAGCTCAAGAAATTATAAAACAAGCAAATAAATGTAAAATGCAAATAATTAATGAAGCTAAACATGAAGCTGAAAAGGAGCAAAGTAGAATTTTATCTCAAGCGCGAGAACAGATTATTTATGAAAGAAAACGTGTTACTGACGAATTAAGAAAGCAAATTAGCGAACTTGTAATTGAGGGTACAGAGAAAGTTATAGAACATTCTATAAATGAAATGATTGATATAGATCTTTTAAATAATATTATTAATACGTTGTCATATAAGGATTAGATGTCTAGTATGCTTGTGGTTGCGCGTACGTATGCTCAAGCTATATTTGATATAGCTGTAGAACAGAAAAATATAAACAAGTGGAAATCAGTTCTTGATTTATTTTCTGAGATTAGTCTAAATAGACTAGTACAATCTTTATTTTTTAGATGTTTAGAACCAAAAAGATTGTCAGATATATTTATTGCTATTTGTGAAGATTACCAAAAGAAACAAGTTGATACCTTCAGTAAAAATATAATCTATATTATGGCGGAAAATAATCGTTTATTATTATTACCAATTGTATTTAAAGAGTTTACTTATTTATGTTCTATATATGTTCATACTGTAGAAATAGAAATTATCTCTGCTTGGCCTTTGAAGTATAATCAGCTGAAAAAAATTACTGATATAATGGCTAAACGTTTATCTAAAACAGTGAATCCAGTACACAAAGTAGATAAAGATATATTGGCTGGTGTAATTATTCGTATTGGAGATACTGTGATTGATGGAAGTATACGTGGACGTATTTTTCGCTTAAATCACGTACTACAATCTTAATATTTTAACAGTAGTTAAAAGGTATAAACAAAAGATTATGCAATTAAATTCAAATGAAATTTCAGATAATGGAGAAGTTATTATTAATGATTTAAAGTTATTTTATAATAAAGCTAGACAAACTAAAATTACAGAAGAACTTACAGAAATTGTTTCAGGAGCTTCTGTAATATAAACTTAAAAGATAGTTAGAGGTATAATTAATATGAGTTCTGGAAAAATTGTCCAGGTTATTGGAGCGGTGGTTGATGTTGCGTTCAATCAAGATGTGGTACCGACTGTATACCATGCACTTGAGGTGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCT DNA sequencing Why? – Identifies Organisms Introduces Biological Machines How? – Dideoxy Sequencing Where? – Universities, MBL Societal Impact? – Forensics, Insurance DNA detective

  2. Bioinformatics ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAG Review of Project PCR DNA extraction Insect identification ? DNA sequencing Gel electrophoresis ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCA

  3. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) 1- Amplifies defined DNA sequences 2- Uses basic properties of the DNA replicating enzyme (DNA Polymerase) 3- DNA polymerization using defined DNA template, two defined primers, 4 dNTPs

  4. DNA Polymerase Action

  5. Basics of PCR Template DNA - the starting DNA of interest. • DNA polymerase copies the complimentary strand starting at the primer. In one cycle, two identical strands are made. High temperature denatures template DNA into single strands and synthetic sequences of ssDNA (20-30 nucleotides) serve as primers Two different primers are used to bracket the target gene to be amplified

  6. PCR - Ready Beads • Small quantity of DNA • Primers • Buffered solution containing DNA polymerase • Four base pairs of DNA • Cofactor MgCl2 All in test tube Small quantity of DNA Primers Buffered solution containing DNA polymerase Four base Cofactor MgCl2

  7. Two Key Innovations for Success of PCR • Heat-stable DNA polymerase isolated from bacterium Thermus aquaticus which inhabits hot springs Polymerase remains active despite being heated many times • DNA thermal cyclers – a computer that controls repetitive temperature changes required for PCR 70C hot springs in Yellowstone National Park Example of a thermal cycler from MJ Research

  8. Temperature drives the reaction

  9. Target gene: 16S rDNA of Wolbachia

  10. Importance of Ribosomes in Cell Biology Ribosomes are part of the machinery that synthesizes cell proteins Ribosomes are so important that they are ubiquitous and highly conserved

  11. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) • Ideal gene for phylogenetic studies because it : • is an essential gene that is present in all organisms. • is a common target for sequencing studies; large database for comparisons. • contains sites that are relatively conserved (stems) and sites that are more free to vary (loops). Molecular Phylogenetics Step 1. Select a DNA region that is homologous, or similar across species due to common ancestry. Secondary structure of 16S rRNA in E. coli

  12. Our goal: Determine which of your insects harbor Wolbachia? DNA extraction: PCR: Gel electrophoresis:

  13. PCR and Pop Culture “Jurassic Park” and “CSI” Some fun PCR facts to share with your students: …PCR has been used to amplify DNA from… • a preserved quagga (a zebra relative that became extinct 100 years ago) • crime scenes (e.g., O.J.) • Abducted children to find parents • Prisoners leading to exonerations • Mummies to determine gender, bacterial infections

  14. How is this organism related to other species? K ? C A H F I J D B E G

  15. DNA sequences provide characters that are: • Numerous, discrete characters (A, T, C, G) • Directly comparable across species • Unlikely to change due to culture conditions • Can be sampled without ever culturing (important for endosymbionts!) Molecular phylogenetics: Inference of evolutionary relationships based on molecular data ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTCAATACGCGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTA

  16. ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGT PCR Sequence the PCR product ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGT ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGGTFTGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGT ACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATTTAGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGT 2. Amplify andSequence this region across isolates….

  17. 3. Estimate relationships based on extent of DNA similarity. At variable DNA positions, related groups will tend to share the same nucleotide. The sheer number of characters is helpful to distinguish the ‘phylogenetic signal’ from noise. ATGTTGGCAGTCCGATGTAAGC ATGTTGGCAGTCCGATGTAAGC ATGTTGGCAGTCCGATGTAACC ACGGTAGCAGTCTGATGTATCC ACGGTAGCAGTCTGATGTATCC ACGGTAGCAGTCTGATGTATCC CTGCTGGTAGTCGTTTGTAACC CTGCTGGTAGTCGTTTGTAACC CTGCTGGCAGTCGGTTGTAACC ATGCTGGCAGTCGGGTGTAACC Molecular phylogeny of taxa A-I. ATGGTGGCAGTCGGGTGTCACC Colored letters = different from top sequence (taxon G)

  18. Fred Sanger The elegant idea behind DNA sequencing Technology changes quickly, but for many years we’ve used Sanger’s cool trick. In the 1970’s, Sanger’s group discovered a fundamentally new method of 'reading' the linear DNA sequence using special bases called chain terminators or dideoxynucleotides. This method is still in use today. What is the basis of Sanger’s method? Shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg

  19. DNA Polymerase Action

  20. Mechanism of DNA polymerization

  21. Dideoxy Nucleotide

  22. ddGTP X H Dideoxies block elongation

  23. DNA Sequencing Reactions

  24. Gel Electrophoretic Fractionationof Products

  25. Fractionating DNA Molecules DNA is negatively charged at neutral pH DNA will travel towards a positive charge DNA electrophoresed in a gel will travel according to its chain length

  26. Detecting DNA Early experiments used radio-isotopically labeled DNA (primers) Now we use fluorescently labeled dideoxynucleotides

  27. denaturation Product extension Primer annealing Perform cycle sequencing in PCR machine Reaction steps seems a lot like PCR, but not quite…

  28. Use of capillaries filled with a matrix for higher through-put of sequencing reactions. e.g. ABI 3730

  29. In sum: From PCR to sequence data 2. Set up sequencing reaction 1. Purify PCR product 3. Perform cycle sequencing 5. Read order of terminators (DNA sequence) 4. Resolve sequence fragments

  30. Quality of sequence data may vary, depending on: • Purity and concentration of template DNA • Presence of extra PCR bands (artifacts) • Quality of dye-terminators, electrophoresis matrix, and other reagents Ideally, look at chromatograms and convince yourself that base calls are robust.

  31. PCR PRODUCT of 1,200 bp Sequence read #1 Sequence read #2 Sequence read #3 DNA sequence assembly: Combining sequence reads to build the entire sequence of the template DNA • Sequence “reads” typically range from 500-800 bp. Often the total DNA fragment is much longer. • Regions of overlap among sequence reads: • Let us piece together the linear “puzzle” of the template DNA sequence. • Often confirm base calls and improve overall add data quality.

  32. Major sequencing centers have facilities to sequence multiple full genomes each year • Due to genomic research over the past decade, DNA sequencing has become: • Increasingly automated • Higher-throughput • Less $$ per reaction • And (good news) more accessible to researchers and educators

  33. Possible avenues for DNA sequencing: Many public universities have DNA sequencing facilities in house. Such facilities are usually able to run small numbers of reactions for a cost of ~$10-15 per reaction, but often much less for “internal users” with ties to the university. Ideal situation: Team up with faculty at your local university to act as facilitators. • Even if DNA sequencing not an option for classroom labs, important to discuss: • how DNA sequencing is performed, • how data is evaluated, • what information can be obtained from the data, • what biologically important concepts can be learned, • ethical issues surrounding its interpretation and use.

  34. Ethical issues involving DNA sequencing Truro: A tranquil Cape community shaken by the murder of a young woman in January 2002

  35. Should police have requested DNA of every man in Truro??

  36. Should scientists attempt to clone the now-extinct Thylacine to revive this species?? (The technology will be there eventually.) Thylacine pup preserved in alcohol in 1866. Its cells could be used for cloning. By chance this Thylacine was stored in a jar of alcohol rather than formalin, which would have destroyed the DNA.

  37. ATGTTCTATCCCATTCATTTTGACGTTATTGTTGTTGGAGGAGGTCATGCTGGGACAGAAGCAGCTTTGGCTTCTGCTAGGATGCAATGTAATACGCTTTTGATTACTCATAATATTGATACTCTTGGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTTGTTATATTACCCATACTAATAACAAAACACATGAAATAGTTAGATCAAATTTATATCAGAGTCCTATGTATACAGGTTTAATAAAAGGAATAGCACCTCGGTATTGTCCATCTATAGAAGACAAAATAACTCGTTTTTCAGATCGTAATGCTCATCAAATTTTTTTAGAACCTGAAGGTTTGACAACACCTGAAGTATATCTTAATGGTATTTCTACTAGCTTACCTTTTTGTGTACAAATGCAAATGATTAAATCAATTCAGGGATTAGAGAATGCTTGTATAATTAGGCCAGGTTATGCTATTGAATACGATTTTTTTGATCCTCGTGATTTAAAATTAACATTAGAGAGTAAAATTATTTCTGGATTATTTTTTTCTGGTCAAATTAATGGTACTACTGGTTATGAAGAAGCAGCTGCCCAAGGATTATTGGCCGGAATTAATGCAGCTAGGTTTTCCAAAAATAAAGAAGGATGGTACCCTAGAAGAGATCAGGCATATTTAGGGGTGCTTGTAGATGATCTCTGTACACATGGAACAGAAGAACCTTATCGTATGTTTACTTCGCGTGCTGAATATCGTCTGTCTTTACGTGAGGATAATGCTGATTTAAGATTAACTGAAATCGCGCGACAGTTAGGTTTGATAGATGAGTCACGGTGGAAAGCTTTTTGTTGCAAAAAAGAAAACATTGAAAAAGAACGTCAGAGATTACGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGTTTATGTCAGGAATCAAAGGCACTTCCCAAGAATATATTGGACATCATTTATATCATCTGCAATTTGATTTAAGTACTTTTTCGTTAGTGAGCTCGGAGAATACTTCTTCATTCTGGGTATTAAATGTAGATTCGATGTTTTTTTCAATATTATTGGCTACTTTATTTTTATTAATTTTCGGTCGTTTGGCTACAGTGGCAACTTATGCGGTTCCCACAAAACTGCAAGTGTTTATTGAGTTAGTAATATTGTTTATTGATAGCAATGTAAAAGATATGTTTCATGGTAAAAATAAACTAATTGCGCCATTATCTATGACGGTTTTTGTTTGGATTTTTTTAATGAATACCATGGATTTATTTCCCATAGATTTATTTCCTGCTATAGCTAAATTGTTAGGATTACCTGCTTTACGTGTTGTGCCGTCTGCCGATGTGAATATCACTTCTTCGCTAGCTTTAAATGTATTTGTACTTGTTATGTACTACAATATTTACGTTAATGGCGTTCATGGTTTTATTAAAGGACTGATGTATCATCCATTTAATCATCCAACATGTATTCCTATTAATTTTATTATTGAAGTTGTTAGTTTGTTATCTAAACCAGTATCACTTAGTCTTAGATTATTTGGCAATATGTATTCTGGTGAGTTGATTTTTATTTTGATATCTGGTTTATTACCATGGTGGGGACAATGGGTTTTAAATTTACCATGGGCTATTTTTCATATTTTAGTCGTTACATTACAGGCTTTTATTTTTATGGTTTTAACGGTGATTTATTTATCTACAGCCCATGACTCCTGTTAAAATGAATCATGTAATACAGAAGATTGCAGAGAGGTTATTATGGAACATTTAAATTTTGATATGTTATATATTGCTGCAGCAATAATGATGGGATTAGCAGCAATTGGAGCGGCTATCGGTATTGGCATCTTAGGTAGTAAATTTTTAGAGGGGGCTGCACGTCAACCAGATCTCATTCCGATCCTTCGAACTCAGTTTTTTATTGTTATGGGATTGGTTGATGCAATACCAATGATTACTGTAGGTCTTGGTTTGTATGTGATGTTTTCTGCGGTTTAACAATGAAAATTAATTGCATGTATTTATTATATTGATTATTAAATATCAGGATTTGCGCTGTGAATCTTAATGCAACAATATTAGGTCAAACTATTTCATTTGTTTTGTTTGTTTGGTTTTGTATGAAGTATGTGTGGTATCCATTTATATCTATTATTGAGAAACGCCAAAAAGAAATTTCTGATAATTTAGTTTCTGCTACTCATGCCAAAACAGAATCTGAGCGTGTCAATGCTGAAGCTTTGCTTTGTTTGAGACAGGCTCGGGTCAAAGCTCAAGAAATTATAAAACAAGCAAATAAATGTAAAATGCAAATAATTAATGAAGCTAAACATGAAGCTGAAAAGGAGCAAAGTAGAATTTTATCTCAAGCGCGAGAACAGATTATTTATGAAAGAAAACGTGTTACTGACGAATTAAGAAAGCAAATTAGCGAACTTGTAATTGAGGGTACAGAGAAAGTTATAGAACATTCTATAAATGAAATGATTGATATAGATCTTTTAAATAATATTATTAATACGTTGTCATATAAGGATTAGATGTCTAGTATGCTTGTGGTTGCGCGTACGTATGCTCAAGCTATATTTGATATAGCTGTAGAACAGAAAAATATAAACAAGTGGAAATCAGTTCTTGATTTATTTTCTGAGATTAGTCTAAATAGACTAGTACAATCTTTATTTTTTAGATGTTTAGAACCAAAAAGATTGTCAGATATATTTATTGCTATTTGTGAAGATTACCAAAAGAAACAAGTTGATACCTTCAGTAAAAATATAATCTATATTATGGCGGAAAATAATCGTTTATTATTATTACCAATTGTATTTAAAGAGTTTACTTATTTATGTTCTATATATGTTCATACTGTAGAAATAGAAATTATCTCTGCTTGGCCTTTGAAGTATAATCAGCTGAAAAAAATTACTGATATAATGGCTAAACGTTTATCTAAAACAGTGAATCCAGTACACAAAGTAGATAAAGATATATTGGCTGGTGTAATTATTCGTATTGGAGATACTGTGATTGATGGAAGTATACGTGGACGTATTTTTCGCTTAAATCACGTACTACAATCTTAATATTTTAACAGTAGTTAAAAGGTATAAACAAAAGATTATGCAATTAAATTCAAATGAAATTTCAGATAATGGAGAAGTTATTATTAATGATTTAAAGTTATTTTATAATAAAGCTAGACAAACTAAAATTACAGAAGAACTTACAGAAATTGTTTCAGGAGCTTCTGTAATATAAACTTAAAAGATAGTTAGAGGTATAATTAATATGAGTTCTGGAAAAATTGTCCAGGTTATTGGAGCGGTGGTTGATGTTGCGTTCAATCAAGATGTGGTACCGACTGTATACCATGCACTTGAGGTGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTATGTTCTATCCCATTCATTTTGACGTTATTGTTGTTGGAGGAGGTCATGCTGGGACAGAAGCAGCTTTGGCTTCTGCTAGGATGCAATGTAATACGCTTTTGATTACTCATAATATTGATACTCTTGGACAGATGTCTTGTAATCCGGCCGTTGGTGGCATAGGGAAAGGACATTTAGTGAAAGAAATTGATGCGATGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCTTGTTATATTACCCATACTAATAACAAAACACATGAAATAGTTAGATCAAATTTATATCAGAGTCCTATGTATACAGGTTTAATAAAAGGAATAGCACCTCGGTATTGTCCATCTATAGAAGACAAAATAACTCGTTTTTCAGATCGTAATGCTCATCAAATTTTTTTAGAACCTGAAGGTTTGACAACACCTGAAGTATATCTTAATGGTATTTCTACTAGCTTACCTTTTTGTGTACAAATGCAAATGATTAAATCAATTCAGGGATTAGAGAATGCTTGTATAATTAGGCCAGGTTATGCTATTGAATACGATTTTTTTGATCCTCGTGATTTAAAATTAACATTAGAGAGTAAAATTATTTCTGGATTATTTTTTTCTGGTCAAATTAATGGTACTACTGGTTATGAAGAAGCAGCTGCCCAAGGATTATTGGCCGGAATTAATGCAGCTAGGTTTTCCAAAAATAAAGAAGGATGGTACCCTAGAAGAGATCAGGCATATTTAGGGGTGCTTGTAGATGATCTCTGTACACATGGAACAGAAGAACCTTATCGTATGTTTACTTCGCGTGCTGAATATCGTCTGTCTTTACGTGAGGATAATGCTGATTTAAGATTAACTGAAATCGCGCGACAGTTAGGTTTGATAGATGAGTCACGGTGGAAAGCTTTTTGTTGCAAAAAAGAAAACATTGAAAAAGAACGTCAGAGATTACGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGTTTATGTCAGGAATCAAAGGCACTTCCCAAGAATATATTGGACATCATTTATATCATCTGCAATTTGATTTAAGTACTTTTTCGTTAGTGAGCTCGGAGAATACTTCTTCATTCTGGGTATTAAATGTAGATTCGATGTTTTTTTCAATATTATTGGCTACTTTATTTTTATTAATTTTCGGTCGTTTGGCTACAGTGGCAACTTATGCGGTTCCCACAAAACTGCAAGTGTTTATTGAGTTAGTAATATTGTTTATTGATAGCAATGTAAAAGATATGTTTCATGGTAAAAATAAACTAATTGCGCCATTATCTATGACGGTTTTTGTTTGGATTTTTTTAATGAATACCATGGATTTATTTCCCATAGATTTATTTCCTGCTATAGCTAAATTGTTAGGATTACCTGCTTTACGTGTTGTGCCGTCTGCCGATGTGAATATCACTTCTTCGCTAGCTTTAAATGTATTTGTACTTGTTATGTACTACAATATTTACGTTAATGGCGTTCATGGTTTTATTAAAGGACTGATGTATCATCCATTTAATCATCCAACATGTATTCCTATTAATTTTATTATTGAAGTTGTTAGTTTGTTATCTAAACCAGTATCACTTAGTCTTAGATTATTTGGCAATATGTATTCTGGTGAGTTGATTTTTATTTTGATATCTGGTTTATTACCATGGTGGGGACAATGGGTTTTAAATTTACCATGGGCTATTTTTCATATTTTAGTCGTTACATTACAGGCTTTTATTTTTATGGTTTTAACGGTGATTTATTTATCTACAGCCCATGACTCCTGTTAAAATGAATCATGTAATACAGAAGATTGCAGAGAGGTTATTATGGAACATTTAAATTTTGATATGTTATATATTGCTGCAGCAATAATGATGGGATTAGCAGCAATTGGAGCGGCTATCGGTATTGGCATCTTAGGTAGTAAATTTTTAGAGGGGGCTGCACGTCAACCAGATCTCATTCCGATCCTTCGAACTCAGTTTTTTATTGTTATGGGATTGGTTGATGCAATACCAATGATTACTGTAGGTCTTGGTTTGTATGTGATGTTTTCTGCGGTTTAACAATGAAAATTAATTGCATGTATTTATTATATTGATTATTAAATATCAGGATTTGCGCTGTGAATCTTAATGCAACAATATTAGGTCAAACTATTTCATTTGTTTTGTTTGTTTGGTTTTGTATGAAGTATGTGTGGTATCCATTTATATCTATTATTGAGAAACGCCAAAAAGAAATTTCTGATAATTTAGTTTCTGCTACTCATGCCAAAACAGAATCTGAGCGTGTCAATGCTGAAGCTTTGCTTTGTTTGAGACAGGCTCGGGTCAAAGCTCAAGAAATTATAAAACAAGCAAATAAATGTAAAATGCAAATAATTAATGAAGCTAAACATGAAGCTGAAAAGGAGCAAAGTAGAATTTTATCTCAAGCGCGAGAACAGATTATTTATGAAAGAAAACGTGTTACTGACGAATTAAGAAAGCAAATTAGCGAACTTGTAATTGAGGGTACAGAGAAAGTTATAGAACATTCTATAAATGAAATGATTGATATAGATCTTTTAAATAATATTATTAATACGTTGTCATATAAGGATTAGATGTCTAGTATGCTTGTGGTTGCGCGTACGTATGCTCAAGCTATATTTGATATAGCTGTAGAACAGAAAAATATAAACAAGTGGAAATCAGTTCTTGATTTATTTTCTGAGATTAGTCTAAATAGACTAGTACAATCTTTATTTTTTAGATGTTTAGAACCAAAAAGATTGTCAGATATATTTATTGCTATTTGTGAAGATTACCAAAAGAAACAAGTTGATACCTTCAGTAAAAATATAATCTATATTATGGCGGAAAATAATCGTTTATTATTATTACCAATTGTATTTAAAGAGTTTACTTATTTATGTTCTATATATGTTCATACTGTAGAAATAGAAATTATCTCTGCTTGGCCTTTGAAGTATAATCAGCTGAAAAAAATTACTGATATAATGGCTAAACGTTTATCTAAAACAGTGAATCCAGTACACAAAGTAGATAAAGATATATTGGCTGGTGTAATTATTCGTATTGGAGATACTGTGATTGATGGAAGTATACGTGGACGTATTTTTCGCTTAAATCACGTACTACAATCTTAATATTTTAACAGTAGTTAAAAGGTATAAACAAAAGATTATGCAATTAAATTCAAATGAAATTTCAGATAATGGAGAAGTTATTATTAATGATTTAAAGTTATTTTATAATAAAGCTAGACAAACTAAAATTACAGAAGAACTTACAGAAATTGTTTCAGGAGCTTCTGTAATATAAACTTAAAAGATAGTTAGAGGTATAATTAATATGAGTTCTGGAAAAATTGTCCAGGTTATTGGAGCGGTGGTTGATGTTGCGTTCAATCAAGATGTGGTACCGACTGTATACCATGCACTTGAGGTGTAATACTTATATTTTCCCGTATAGCTCAGATGTTGCACAATTAAATAATTTTCTTAAAACACCTTTAACACATGAAACAAATGGCGAAGATCTTTTGAGAAGGCCAGAAATTAATTATAAAAAGTTATCTCAACTAAGTACTTTTAGTCCATCTATATTGGATCGTCAAGTATTCGAGCAAATTGAAATTCAAATAAAATATGAAGGTTATATTCGTCATCAACAAGAAGAAATAAAGAGACATATTTATAATGAAAATACATTGTTACCGACTGATATAGATTTCAATATTGTTTCTGGATTATCTCAGGAGGTCATTGACAAACTCAATAATTATAAACCTTATTCTATTGGGCAGGCTTCTCGCATTTCTGGTATCACTCCTGCGGCTATTTCTAATTTATTGGTTTGGTTAAAAAAACAAGGTTTGTTAGAGCATAATACATGCTAATCTGTTGAATAATGTATTTTCTATTAATCAAGGTATTATTTAATTTCCTATATAGGGTGTTTGTGATTGTTACAATATGGAGAGAGTTGATCGTGTAGAAAACCGGTATATTTATGTCTTTTCCAATAATAATTTTATAGAAATAATAATAGTAATTAGATTATTATTTTAATGGGTTTGTTATGTATGGCATTATTTTTAATATTATACGGTTGTTTATACGTATCTAAATTTGCGCTTTGAATTTTTTTGAAAATAGGATTATACTGAACTTTTAGTTGTATACAAGTGTATTATTTCATATTTTTGAATAAATATACGTGCTGTACTAATGGTTATTAATTACAAGATAAATTACTTGTCGACCGAACTATAGTTCGGTCGTGTGTTTGTTTCTGTAAGTTGTAACATATTATGTGAAATTTACTAATTAATTCATAGTGTCATTTTAATTCTCTTTTATTGCATTAGTATATGGTTGTGTAAAAAGAGAGAGAGTGTTCTTGTTATTTTCTATTAGTACTAATTTTTTAAAAGTTGATGCAGGCACTGTCGTTCTTTTCGGATACAACATCATTGTAAGTTATATATAAAAATGATTTAGAATTTCGACATGTTAGTGACAAGTTGTATATCGAGGTTGTAATGTTGTATTATACAAGAACATTGTAAAATATTTATAGTATATTGCAGCCAATATTTTTTGAAAGGTGGGTGGATCGATGGCTTATGCTATCGATCAATCAGGAATTCAATTTAGAGTACTTAATAGTAGCAAAGGAGCTGCTGTTAGAGCAACACGTGCTCAGGCAGATAAAATATTATATCGTCAAGCAATACGTAGTATTCTTGAATATCAAAAATTTTTGTTGGTTATTCAAGCGTCAGTAGAAGATTTAATAGTTAGTGGGAACAAGATTGTTGGAGTAATTACTCCAAAATTAGGAATGAAATTTAGTGGTACGTCTGTTGTGTTGACAACCGGAACCTTTCTCAATGGTAAGATTCATATTGGGATGAATAATTTTAGAGGAGGTCGATCTGGAGATTCGGAGTCATCGTCATTGTTATCAGAGCGATTGAAAGAATTGTCTTTTCAGATTAGTCGGTTAAAAACGGGTACTTCTCCTCGTGTGCATACCAAAGGGATAAATTTTGGTTCTTTACGTGCACAATATAGTGATGATCCCATTCCTGTGTTTTCATTTATAGGATCTACAAAACTACATCCTACGCAGGTGCCT DNA sequencing Why? – Identifies Organisms How? – Dideoxy Sequencing Introduces Biological Machines Where? – Universities, MBL Societal Impact? – Forensics, Insurance DNA detective

  38. PCR Animation http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120078/micro15.swf

  39. Dideoxies block elongation ddGTP X H

  40. Illumina Next Gen Sequencing

  41. Fascinating. Now how do we actually sequence ??

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