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Abstract

The definite article in Mel G. Tucker Childs Portland State University childst@pdx.edu Niger-Congo 2 1-3 Sept 2016, Paris. Abstract.

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  1. The definite article in MelG. Tucker ChildsPortland State Universitychildst@pdx.eduNiger-Congo 21-3 Sept 2016, Paris

  2. Abstract As a function word, the definite article is subject to some attrition in the course of language change. The definite article often originates in a form with fuller phonetic substance, such as a demonstrative, e.g., Greenberg 1978, later attriting into something with lesser phonetic substance, including the possibility of surviving only as a prosodic element such as a tone. This generalization holds true for the Mel languages, spoken in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, part of the vast Niger-Congo phylum. After a brief discussion of classification issues, I discuss the reflexes in the various sub-groups. The definite article, where it exists in Mel, is highly variable yet still allows for reconstruction in the Bolom-Kisi subgroup of Mel and for understanding a puzzle from an earlier analysis of Kisi. After presenting cognates and positing a proto-form for that sub-group, I turn to less closely related languages of another Mel sub-group, Temne-Baga, to see what reflexes of the definite article might be found there. In Temne itself, the most carefully described language, despite its closeness to Bolom, the only trace of a cognate form is the high tone of the reconstructed Definite. There is a formal definite/indefinite distinction in Temne (marked by both tonal and segmental differences), a distinction not found in Bolom-Kisi. Segmental features are entirely absent. Other languages of Temne-Baga present further challenges in establishing cognates with the one language of focus, Baga Koba, featuring the same morphosyntax and formal marking of Definite.. The facts around the Definite article support the present thinking about the classification of Mel.

  3. (1) Course of the discussion Introduction: The origin of the problem, a troubling anomaly in an otherwise plausible and universal phonetic process Defining the context, the current classification of Mel The relevant data, intra-Mel (Bolom-Kisi) realizations of the definite article and reconstruction Temne-Baga reflexes Gola (Limba and Sua) Conclusion: Implications, further directions

  4. Table 1 The noun classes of Kisi Pro NCM Semantic characterization o -ó Sg of all animates, some inanimates a -á Pl animates le -léŋSg inanimates la -láŋPl inanimates i -é Sg, collective plants ŋ -óŋPl, collective grains, etc. ma -áŋLiquids

  5. (2) Adjectival concord: N(-ncp) Adj-ncm o wɛ̀ɛ̀ŋyùwɛ́í -ó ‘old (venerated) woman’ woman-Ø old-ncmo ma mɛ̀ŋ-màyùwɛ́í-áŋ ‘old water’ water-ncpma old-ncmma lalɛ̀ɛ̀ŋ-làyùwɛ́í-láŋ‘old cutlasses’ cutlass-ncpla old-ncmla ŋbɛ̌l-ŋ̀ yùwɛ́í-óŋ‘old palm kernels’ palm.kernel-ncpŋold-ncmŋ

  6. (3) Glide epenthesis sùù + ásùùwá ‘fish (pl)’ Stem + Suf kùùmbùù+ ókùùmbùùwó‘open (pl)’ síì+ óŋsíìyóŋ ‘tops’ líìlíì+ élíìlíìyé‘scar from burning’

  7. (4)Onset Building and Filling after codas filled with [l] fàl+ á fàllá‘old men’ fàl+ é fàllé‘body (N. Kisi)’ dìàl+ óŋdìàllóŋ‘body (S. Kisi)’ dùmbúl+áŋdùmbúlláŋ‘citrus fruit’

  8. (6) Onset Building and Filling after codas filled with a nasal mɔ̌m ó mɔ̌mndó ‘dew’ sàyéŋ+ ásàyéŋndá ‘iguanas’ cɛ̀ŋ +écɛ̀ŋndé ‘cymbals’ cìlíŋ + óŋcìlíŋndóŋ ‘iron’ mɛ̀ŋ +áŋmɛ̀ŋndáŋ ‘water’

  9. (7) A reclassification of Southern ‘West Atlantic’ I. Temne, Banta, Baga Koba, Baga Sobane, Baga Binari, Baga Sitemu, Baga Maduri, Landuma, Tyapi (Temne-Baga] II. Bullom (Bolom) Northern dialects: Mandingi or Kafu Southern or ‘Sherbro’ dialects: Bom and Kim III. Kissi (Kisi) IV. Gola

  10. (8) Motivation for establishing Mel as a group separate from Atlantic • Previous grouping not genetic; Koelle 1854: a geographic and typological grouping • Westermann 1928: no regular lexical correspondences throughout Atlantic, shows “close lexical relationship” among Mel languages • unity of group unexamined, search for higher relationships; no real data on low-level relationships (and intermediate levels) • lexical: 300 cognates • Noun class systems, regular correspondences in animate classes (a rather than *bV) • (also Westermann 1928 shows unity of Mel by linking Temne and “Bullom”) • (cf. Sapir 1971 and Wilson 1989)

  11. Figure 2 The classification of Mel 1. Temne-Baga a. Temne b. Baga Binari, Baga Koba, Baga Mandori, Baga Sitemu, Landuma 2. Bolom-Kisi a. Bolom: Mani, Sherbro, Bom-Kim b. Kisi 3. Gola

  12. (11) The Definite article reconstructed for the Bolom-Kisi sub-group of Mel: *lɛ́ Table 2 Definite in Bolom-Kisi, underlying forms and surface realizations Kisi /(+alv) ́/ [wɛ] / [+rnd], [yɛ] / [-rnd], [l] / [l]+__, [d]/[+nas]+__ (no TBU, but following tone on noun class marker always high) Mani /ʧɛ/ (<cɛ>) [ʧɛ] (polar tone, the opposite of the preceding tone) Bom-Kim /ɛ/ [wɛ] / [+rnd] __, [yɛ] / [-rnd] __, [lɛ] / [l] + __, [dɛ] / [+nas]+__, [ɛ] (tone presently uncertain, language nearly dead) Bom dialect /lɛ/ [lɛ], [dɛ] / [+nas]+__ (tone presently uncertain, language nearly dead) Sherbro /ɛ/ [wɛ] / [+rnd] +__, [yɛ] / [-rnd]+ __, [lɛ] / [l] + __, [dɛ] / [+nas]+__, [ɛ] (polar tone, the opposite of the preceding tone) Dema dialect/lɛ/ [lɛ], [dɛ] / [+nas]+__ (likely polar tone)

  13. (10) Proto high or polar tone? • the high frequency of marked high: the polar tone in Mani and Sherbro is almost always high because of the languages’ tonotactics • the high tone is the marked tone and Definite is a marked function? contrastive tone • possible simple dissimilation rule (see Cahill 2004) • Kisi Definite remnant is always high • directionality of polar ↔ high change unknown, polar tone as more complex (Cahill 2016 p.c.) (Temne Definite is always H and Indefinite low (see 3.2.1)

  14. (11) Evidence adduced by Wilson 1962 to shown unity of Temne-Baga sub-group of Mel Key: Temne (Tm), Landuma (Ld), Baga Maduri (BMd), Baga Sitemu (BS), Baga Koba (BK) Shared noun class exponents of 16 classes (noun class markers, ncms) Animate (“notional”) concord Identical genitive constructions (Noun Concord-Gen) Sound correspondences voiceless stops: Tm th (interdental plosive) corresponds to t (dental plosive), and Tm t (alveolar plosive or affricate) corresponds to ts (alveolar affricate) or c (palatal plosive or affricate), k voiced stops: b, d/r, and gb voiceless fricatives: f, s Tm l corresponds to l elsewhere in cluster except in BK where it is r Nasals n and m cognate throughout (ŋ not consistent) front vowels i, e, ɛ and back vowels u, o, ɔ cognate; central vowels not so much so The forms for classes 11-16 are incomplete (Wilson 1962: 27-28).

  15. Table 3 Noun class prefixes in Temne Class Def. example gloss Indef. example gloss 1 ɔ́- ɔ́-wàththe child ù- ù-wàth a child 2 k-ʌ́- k-ʌ́-yèkthe monkey k-ə̀- k-ə̀-yèka monkey 3 ʌ́ŋ- ʌ́ŋ-shèththe house ʌ̀- ʌ̀-shèth a house 4 r/d-ʌ́- r-ʌ́-bèmthe rabbit r/d-ə̀- r-ə̀-bèma rabbit 5 áŋ- áŋ-tàrthe slaves à- à-tàrslaves 6 t-ʌ́- t-ʌ́-bèpthe spoonst-ə̀- t-ə̀-bèpspoons 7 ɛ́- ɛ́-lòpthe fish ɛ̀- ɛ̀-lòpfish 8 n-ʌ́- n-ʌ́-bèŋàthe ropes n-ə̀- n-ə̀-bèŋàropes 9 p-ʌ́- p-ʌ́-rʌ̀nkthe type of rice p-ə̀- p-ə̀-rʌ̀nktype of rice 10 m-ʌ́- m-ʌ́-yɛ̀nthɛ̀ the sesame m-ə̀- m-ə̀-yɛ̀nthɛ̀ sesame

  16. Table 4 The noun classes of Baga Koba (Relich 1973) Class Class characterization I. (i-) i-wus the husband Persons i-tik the stranger II. (a-) a-fef the wind Implements, containers, etc. a-butu the mattress III. (kə) kə-wokathe noise Nouns derived from verbs kə-ton the language IV. (da-) da-bampthe closet Locatives, body parts, abstractions da-bompthe head V. (a-/wa-) a-bakorethe partridge Animal names w-irthe goat VI. (ma-/ta-)ma-berthe fermented drink Collectives, partitives, liquids ta-re the day

  17. Table 5 Gola Definite markers (Koroma 1994) Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -ɔ -ɲa -ᴐ̃ -ɛ malɛlɛ -i exx. meat, people gravy sacrifice, place, aunt horn village, top

  18. Table 6 Gola Definite, selected classes (Westermann 1921) 1. prefix ońun man ońun the man kanda king okanda the king 4. suffix o̱ ńun man ońun, ńuno̱, ońuno̱ the man do slave odo, doo̱, odoo̱ the slave 5. suffix e̱kul tree kekul, kule̱, kekule̱ the tree kekal iron kekal, kale̱, kekale̱ the iron 9. prefix kekekul tree

  19. (14) Why can’t we do better? (Cf. Pozdniakov 2007) 1. vast quantity of languages 2. poor documentation 3. no writing 4. divergence and complex sociolinguistics 5. rampant multilingualism (6. peripheralization of understudied languages, language death)

  20. (15) Possible topics for comparison • Phonology: Vowel harmony, tone, the distribution of th-t-c(h) across the languages • Morphology: noun class systems (see Creissels and Pozdniakov 2015), and verb extensions • Syntax: s-aux-o-v and tns-obj (Childs 2012, paper at Niger-Congo 1) • further work: Limba, Gola and more detailed work on non-Temne languages

  21. References Cahill, Michael C. 2004. Tonal Polarity in Konni Nouns. Studies in African Linguistics 33, 1:1-33. Childs, G. Tucker. 1982. The evolution of noun class markers in the Southern West Atlantic languages, thesis, Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA. ___. 1983. Noun class affix renewal in Southern West Atlantic. In Current Approaches to African Linguistics 2, eds. Kaye, Jonathan D. et al.: 17-29. Dordrecht, Holland and Cinnaminson, NJ: Foris Publications. ___. 1986. An autosegmental treatment of Kisi noun class morphophonemics. In Current Approaches to African Linguistics 3, ed. Dimmendaal, Gerritt J.: 79-92. Dordrecht: Foris. ___. 1995. A Grammar of Kisi: A Southern Atlantic Language. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ___. 2001. What's so Atlantic about Atlantic? Leiden: 31st Colloquium on African Languages and Linguistics. ___. 2011. A Grammar of Mani. New York and Berlin: de Gruyter. ___. In preparation. 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