Anglo-Saxon Culture

1. Anglo-Saxon Culture c. 450 - 1066

2. Anglo-Saxons • "The Anglo-Saxons" is the general name given to the Germanic peoples who inhabited Britain between the fifth and the eleventh centuries, between the Romans and the Normans. • The name isn't a modern invention: it was first used in England at the court of Alfred the Great (871-899), who came to the throne as King of the West Saxons, but redefined his title as King of the Anglo-Saxons (rexAngolsaxonum) in the 890s, to mark his rulership over all free English people. • It was used abroad even earlier, in the time of Charlemagne (768-814), but there it seems to have been to distinguish the "English" Saxons from those who stayed behind on the Continent.

3. Invasion of Britain • Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and other Germanic tribes • Seafaring warrior cultures • Pagans that believed in wyrd, or fate • Eventually organized themselves into a confederacy of seven kingdoms (the Heptarchy) • Briton became known as Angle-land after the most dominate political tribe • The Saxons were named so for the type of weapons they used and settled in areas like Sussex, Essex, Wessex, etc. • As if this weren’t complicated enough, in AD 790 the Danes (or Vikings) invaded and swept through the Heptarchy.

4. Old English • "Old English" is the name modern scholars give to the language of the Anglo-Saxons, though some scholars use "Anglo-Saxon" to refer to the language as well as the people. • The Saxons themselves called their language Englisc (Old English -sc is pronounced like modern -sh, so they would have pronounced it "English"), and a lot of the low-level structure and vocabulary of our modern English goes back to their Englisc. • The main effect of the Norman conquest in the long run was to add an extra layer of vocabulary.

5. Tradition of Naming • Anglo-Saxons distinguished between two people with the same name by adding either the place they came from or the job they did to their first name. • Modern surnames such as Baxter, Baker, Weaver, Fisher, Fowler, Hunter, and Farmer are Anglo-Saxon in origin. • Vikings had a different way of distinguishing between people the of the same name. • They added the name of the person's father or mother to the child's name. • As an example, Harald, the son of Erik would be known as Harald Erik's son, or as we would say it today, Harald Erikson

6. Life • It is difficult to generalize about an era as lengthy as the Dark Ages, but we'll do it anyway. • The Anglo-Saxons were pagans when they came to Britain. They worshipped gods of nature and held springs, wells, rocks, and trees in reverence. • Religion was not a source of spiritual revelation, it was a means of ensuring success in material things. For example, you might pray to a particular goddess for a successful harvest, or for victory in battle. • A few of the main Anglo-Saxon gods were Tiw, Wodin (Odin), Thor, and Friya, whose names are remembered in our days of the week Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday.

7. Religion • Religious observance consisted of invocations and charms to ensure the gods' help in securing a desired outcome in the material world, though the presence of grave goods indicates a belief in an afterlife. • There is a possibility that female slaves may have been sacrificed on the death of a male owner and included in the grave to accompany him in the next world.

8. A Lord’s Life . . . • We know little about how most people lived, for so little remains. • The richer lords lived on estates, with a main rectangular hall surrounded by outlying buildings for various living, working, and storage purposes. • Inside the hall a lord might mark his prestige by expensive wall hangings or even paintings. The hall was the scene of feasts for the lord's followers, and a lord was expected to be a lavish host. • Society was divided into several social classes, which might vary from place to place.

9. . . . A Lord’s Life • At the top was the king. He was essentially a war leader. He was expected to provide opportunities for plunder and glory for his followers. • The king who did not provide land, slaves, or plunder might wake up dead one fine morning. • Below the king there were two levels of freemen, the upper class thanes and the lower class ceorls (churls). • The division between the two was strictly in terms of land owned.

10. . . . A Lord’s Life • A man could only be a thane if he owned at least five hides of land (a hide was defined as the amount of land necessary to provide a living for one family). Aside from the ownership of land, a ceorl could actually be a richer man than the thane. • Below the thanes and ceorls were the slaves. • Slavery was one of the biggest commercial enterprises of Dark Age life, and much depended on this involuntary labor force.

11. Understanding Comitatus • In exchange for service, Thanes were given gifts and status. • Rings of gold were often the favored gift, but mead horns, weapons, armor, and titles were other forms of reciprocity, or best of all, to have his name sung in the mead hall. • A lord was only as great as the gifts he gave. • They thought life without loyalty was worse than death.

12. Slavery - the way in... • One could have the bad luck to be born a slave, of course. • Beyond that, war was the most frequent source of slaves. • Many conquered Celtic Britons would have become slaves. • People could also become slaves if they were unable to pay a fine. • In some cases a family would sell a child into slavery in time of famine to ensure the child's survival.

13. ...and the way out • Slavery was not necessarily a lifetime sentence, however. • A slave could be ransomed by his or her relatives or granted freedom in an owner's will. • If a person became a slave because he waw unable to pay a debt, he might be freed when the value of his labor reached the value of the original debt.

14. Clothing • The robe or tunic gathered at the waist was the common garment for a man, completed by hose and soft shoes. • For a woman the robe or dress extended to the feet. • The usual materials were linen and woolens, the more expensive outfits being marked by colorful dyes and exotic borders. • Brooches were used to fix clothing by rich and poor, and amulets of stones were worn for luck.

15. Weapons • In war the common weapon was the spear made with a seven foot long ash shaft and an iron head. It was both thrown and used to jab. • Shields were round, made of wood covered with leather, and had an iron boss in the centre. • Only the nobility used swords, which were about thirty inches long, made of iron with steel edges. The hilt was often elaborately carved and jeweled, and could be inscribed with good luck symbols and the names of gods. • The Danish Vikings were more heavily armed than the Anglo-Saxons, relying on chain mail and helmets, and short stabbing swords which were useful in close quarters, as well as the fearsome double headed battle-ax.

16. Leisure • When they weren't fighting (one wonders when that was) the favorite pastimes of the Dark Ages were dice and board games such as chess. • Elaborate riddles were popular, as was horse racing and hunting. • At feasts the most common entertainment was the harp, which was also used in church music. • In addition to the harp, scenes of juggling balls and knives have been found illustrating books of the period.

17. Storytelling as Model for Living • Bards were story-tellers • Called scops • Strummed harp as they sang their stories • Sang of heroic deeds, brave warriors, generous rulers • Were often warriors themselves • In songs they used (to help listeners remember) • Repetition of words and phrases • Alliterative Verses • Strong rhythms • Parallel grammatical structure • Stock Epithets – “swift-footed” attached to a name or “son of . . .” in lieu of name. • Kennings – “whale-road,” “sin-stained demon”

18. Travel • Travel was not uncommon, and the main trade routes, often along the old Roman roads, were used frequently. • However, off the main routes travel could be a risky business. Travelers were advised to shout, blow horns, and make lots of noise. • Otherwise any strangers were assumed to be outlaws, and could be killed out of hand.

19. Administration • The land was divided into shires, mainly according to the territory of the first tribes. • The shire was divided into hundreds, or in the Danelaw, wapentakes. These were the basic units of administration and the court system. • To look after the king's interests (see that all the taxes were collected) and administer justice, were the ealdormen and shire-reeves (sheriffs). • Within the shires were the towns, or burhs, which ranged in size from 5000 people at York to 500 at St. Albans. • Initially only some of the towns were walled, and those often with earthworks reminiscent of the Bronze Age.

20. Farming • In the countryside the vast majority of the people lived by farming. • At first most of the farms were owned outright. The ceorls worked co-operatively, sharing the expense of a team of oxen to plough the large common fields in narrow strips that were shared out alternately so that each farmer had an equal share of good and bad land. • Later much of this land was consolidated into the large estates of wealthy nobles. Ceorls might work the land in return for service or produce, or they might work the lord's land a given number of days per year. • As time went on more and more of these large estates were established as integrated commercial enterprises, complete with water mill to grind the grain.

21. Food • The crops most frequently grown were wheat, oats, rye, and barley (both as a cereal and as the base for beer). • Peas, beans, and lentils were also common. • Honey was the only sweetener in use, and it was used to make the alcoholic beverage mead. • Pigs were a major food animal, as were cattle, goats, and sheep. • Horses and oxen were raised for heavy farm labor and transportation, though the stirrup had yet to make an appearance from the far east.

22. References • Anglo-Saxon England. 27 June 2004 <http://www.gett ysburg.edu/academics/english/britain/anglo- saxon/anglo_home.html>. • Miller, Sean. “Questions.” England c.450-1066 in a Nutshell. 11 November 2010. <http://www.anglo- saxons.net/hwaet/?do=show>. • Pfordresher, John, Gladys V. Veidemanis, and Helen McDonnell, eds. England in Literature. Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1989. • Ross, David. “Anglo-Saxon Life.” Britain Express. 11 November 2010. <http://www.britainexpress.com>.