The 1960s and Beyond

1. The 1960s and Beyond

2. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” • Inaugural address: “Ask not, whatyour country can do for you…” • Young cabinet • Named his younger brother, Robert, as Attorney General. • Robert Kennedy tried to recast the priorities of the FBI, but was resisted by J. Edgar Hoover. • Robert S. McNamara took over the Defense Department. • JFK proposed Peace Corps • A graduate of Harvard and with a young family, JFK was very vibrant and charming to everyone.

3. The New Frontier at Home • Conservative Democrats and Republicans threatened to kill many of the New Frontier’s reforms. • Medical and education bills remainedstalled in Congress • JFK needed to maintain a good economy. • steel management announced large price increases, igniting the fury of the president • big business against the NewFrontier • Kennedy’s tax-cut bill chose to stimulate the economy through price-cutting. • promoted a project to land Americans on the moon

4. Rumblings in Europe • JFK met Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and was threatened, but didn’t back down. • In August of the 1961, the Soviets began building the Berlin Wall to separate East and West Germany. • Western Europe was prospering after help from the Marshall Plan. • America had also encouraged a Common Market • tariff negotiations eased trade between Europe and the U.S • French leader Charles de Gaulle was suspicious of the U.S. and he rejected Britain’s application into the Common Market.

5. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Response” • Many world problems at this time • African Congo: independent from Belgium in 1960 but then erupted into violence and the UN sent a peacekeeping force. • Laos, now independent from France, was being threatened by communism • Defense Secretary McNamara pushed a strategy of “flexible response” • Different military options that could match the situation

6. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire • American-backed Diem government had shakily and corruptly ruledSouth Vietnam since 1954 • Threatened now by the communist Viet Cong movement led by Ho Chi Minh. • JFK slowly sent more and more U.S. troops to Vietnam to “maintain order.” • Many were now fighting and dying in what was “Vietnam’s war.”

7. Cuban Confrontations • Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress was dubbed the“Marshall Plan for Latin America” • Many Latin American countries thought it was too little and resented it • Kennedy backed a U.S.-aided invasion of Cuba by rebels at the Bay of Pigs April 17, 1961 • Revolt failed • Pushed Castro closer to the Soviet Union • 1962:U.S. spy planes recorded nuclear missile installations inCuba. • The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted 13 days and put theU.S. and the U.S.S.R at the brink of nuclear war. • The Soviets agreed to remove their missiles if the U.S. vowed tonot invade Cuba • U.S. removed their own Russia-aimednuclear missiles in Turkey. • June, 1963: Kennedy spoke of détente

8. The Struggle for Civil Rights Kennedy had campaigned a lot to appeal to black voters, but he was hesitant when it came to taking action. • Freedom Riders • Kennedy urgedthe establishment of the SNCC and a Voter Education Project to register the South’s blacks to vote. • Kennedy had to send in 400 federal marshalls and 3,000 troops to ensure that James Meredith could enroll at the University of • 1963: Martin Luther King, Jr. launched a peacefulcampaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama • The public was horrified as they watched on television the violence that occurred towards the sit-in protesters • More violence followed • September 1963: a bomb exploded in a Birmingham church killing four black girls attending church school.

9. The Killing of Kennedy • November 22, 1963 • Allegedly shot and killed by Lee Harvey Oswald • Oswald shot by self-proclaimed avenger Jack • After Kennedy’s death America realized that they had lost a vibrant and charismatic president.

10. Johnson Presidency (1963-1969) • LBJ pushed through more domestic legislation than any 20th century president except FDR • Declared a war on poverty and creation of a Great Society • Medicare and Medicaid programs • VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America)--domestic Peace Corps (now AmeriCorps) • New cabinet offices created in Transportation and Housing and Urban Development • Head Start programs to aid underprivileged children • Food Stamp aid to help poor families

11. Civil Rights Legislation • Voting Rights Act of 1965 • LBJ • No literacy tests • Provided federal registration of African-American voters in areas that had less than fifty percent of eligible voters registered • Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968 • March on Washington helped to get passed • Federal government would withdraw support from any state that discriminated • Established Equal Employment Commission

12. Urban unrest • Watts Riots (1965) resulted in 34 deaths and $35 million damage and demonstrated frustration of urban blacks with unemployment and police practices • Riots followed in black neighborhoods in Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Newark, and Jacksonville from 1965-1967. • King's assassination in April 1968 further antagonized racial tensions. National Commission concluded "Our nation is moving towards two societies, black and white, separate and unequal."

13. LBJ’s Foreign problems • Vietnam • Because of criticism, LBJ announced on March 31, 1968 he would not seek second full term as president in 1968 election.

14. Countercultural Movements • Port Huron Statement (1962)--group of young intellectuals formed the SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) and set out an agenda for societal reform, that included student rights, economic justice, and anti-nuclear war views • Free Speech Movement (1964) begun at UC Berkeley by Mario Savio in protest of university policies spread to other universities as general student unease focused on anti-establishment sentiments.

15. Radicalization of American students led to challenge to Establishment norms and laws • Youth culture openly scornful of middle class values • Increased and public use of hallucinogenic drugs • Rise of hippies led to development of communes and other counterculture movements

16. Rock and folk music reflected iconoclastic views of the counter culture • Rock groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Doors expressed mystical approach that embraced drugs and Eastern religions as well as themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness • Folk singers (Joan Baez, Bob Dylan) expressed explicit radicalism and challenged traditional mores.

17. Militancy and Protest • New militancy among ethnic groups (Native Americans and Hispanics) and feminists also challenged values and laws through affirmative action and university programs that focused on correcting past abuses and stridency in pushing for equal treatment and legal protection.

18. From Civil Rights to Black Power • King and Selma march • Watts (1965) • "Black Power" • Nation of Islam • Malcolm X • Elijah Muhammad • Stokely Carmichael • leader of SNCC and later the Black Panthers • Integrationist and later a separatist • Civil Rights Act of 1968 • expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin • as of 1974, sex • as of 1988, the act protects the handicapped and families with children • The Act is commonly known as the Fair Housing Act (of 1968).

19. Environmentalism • Preservationist legislation • Environmentalism • Rachel Carson Silent Spring (1962) • Earth Day (1970) • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • Clean Air Act of 1970 • Endangered Species Act of 1972

20. Controversies over Rights • Warren Court and Miranda v. Arizona (1966) • Burger Court and Dandridge v. Williams (1970) • Each state has the right to determine guidelines for welfare programs • Ralph Nader • Unsafe at Any Speed (1965) • Occupational Safety Act (1973) • National Organization for Women (NOW) • Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) • Phyllis Schlafly’s “Stop ERA” • Roe v. Wade (1973)

21. Détente (Nixon) • Easing of tensions with Soviets and Communist Chinese • Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) • People's Republic of China

22. Vietnamization • "Nixon Doctrine“ • U.S.’s allies were to take care of their own protection. • Cambodia (1970) • Jackson State College • Kent State University • My Lai • Vietnam Veterans Against the War • "how do you ask a man to be the last man to die for a mistake” John Kerry April 1971 • Paris Peace Accords (1973) • Collapse of Saigon (1975)

23. The Aftermath of War • 1960-1973: 3.5 million men and women served in Vietnam • 58,000 died • 150,000 wounded • 2,000 missing • Politicians and citizens alike struggled with the conditions and outcome of the war • “No more Vietnams”

24. The Nixon Doctrine • Kissinger: the U.S. would not dispatch troops to oppose revolutionary insurgencies but would give assistance to anticommunist regimes or factions • Early 1970s, America supported staunch anticommunist powers with dictatorial governments • Iran, South Africa, Brazil • Covert CIA operations: Chile, 1970

25. The Election of 1972 • CREEP (Committee to Re-Elect the President) • “Dirty tricksters" • George McGovern, Democratic candidate • Twenty-sixth Amendment, 1971 • Lowered legal voting age to 18 years

26. The 1970s: Limited Growth and High Inflation Main Causes • Increased numbers of lower-skilled women and teens in the work force • Higher costs for newer machinery and compliance with government regulations • Shift from manufacturing to service industry

27. Liberal Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren Griswold v. Connecticut: Right to privacy (birth control) Gideon v. Wainwright: right of criminal defendants to legal counsel Escobedo and Miranda: right to remain silent, etc. New York Times v. Sullivan: libel suits only if malice Engel v. Vitale: against required prayers in schools

28. Crisis after Crisis Outright lies about Cambodia at same time as Nixon tapes revealed Arab Oil Embargo of 1974: in reaction to U.S. support of Israel

29. An Unelected President • Ford selected, never elected • Ford quickly pardoned Nixon of all crimes

30. The Election of 1976 • R-Gerald R. Ford • D- James Earl Carter, Jr. “Jimmy” Georgian peanut farmer, former Gov. of GA ran as a Washington outsider, born-again Christian defeated Ford • Pardoned 10,000 Vietnam draft dodgers • Isolated himself from Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress

31. Camp David Agreement • September 1978- Carter invited President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel to a summit at Camp David • Two weeks of difficult negotiations • September 17, 1978- Camp David Agreement • Israel had to return all land in the Sinai in exchange for Egyptian recognition of Israel’s sovereignty • Both parties pledged to formalize a peace treaty within three months

32. Panama, China, & SALT II • 1978- Carter negotiated a treaty with Panama that provided for the transfer of ownership of the Panama Canal to Panama in 2000 • 1979- Carter restored full diplomatic relations with China • 1979- Carter signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II (SALT II) with the USSR • Set a ceiling of 2,250 bombers and missiles for each side, and set limits on warheads and new weapons systems • Six months later the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and SALT II was never ratified by the Senate

33. Iranian Hostage Crisis • 1978- a revolution forced the shah of Iran (ruler since CIA coup in 1953) to flee the country, replacing him with a Muslim religious leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • Because the US had supported the shah with arms and money, the revolutionaries were strongly anti-American November 4, 1979- mob of anti-American Muslim fundamentalists stormed the US embassy in Tehran and seized the diplomats and staff • January 20, 1980- the hostages were released after 444 days when Carter released several billion dollars of Iranian assets • The hostages were released after Ronald Reagan was sworn into office

34. 1980 Election • Ronald Reagan won a landslide victory against incumbent President Carter and third-party candidate John Anderson. • Ronald Reagan won but failed to carry either house of Congress for the Republicans.

35. Reagan’s “supply side economics” “Reaganomics” and the “Trickle-Down” Theory • using federal funds to purchase oil and gas supplies would stimulate the economy. • cutting federal taxes would stimulate the economy and eventually produce more tax revenue and a balanced budget. • cutting the federal budget would create a greater supply of venture capital for entrepreneurs. • expanding the money supply would stimulate the economy and enable borrowers to pay off their loans with “cheaper” dollars • cutting federal taxes would stimulate the economy and eventually produce more tax revenue and a balanced budget.

36. Reagan and Gorbachev An end to the Cold War: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”

37. Reagan’s Star Wars

38. A Changing People • Demographics of the United States • Population was becoming: • Older • More urban • More ethnically and racially diverse • Center of Power shifted away from the Northeast, towards the West and South

39. An Aging Population • Growth rate almost halved between 1970 and 2000 • Age of marriage delayed • Median age of population • 28 was the average age in 1970 • 34 was the average age in 2000 • The “graying of America”

40. New Immigration • Between 1960 and 2000 5 times as many immigrants came from Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America than Europe • Mexicans were the largest group • Immigration Act (1965) • Abolished national origins quotas • Refugee Act (1980) • Admits refugees on a humanitarian basis • Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) • Makes it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants • Immigration Act of 1990 • Increased numbers of immigrants allowed into the U.S.

41. Urbanization and Suburbanization • Metropolitan areas continued to expand • “Urban corridors” connected city centers and adjacent suburbs • “Edge cities” • City centers transformed • Financial, administrative and entertainment • Upper and middle income residents leave • More lower income residents moves in • Major challenges in: urban sprawl, traffic, affordable housing • Community Reinvestment Act

42. Postindustrial Restructuring • Downsizing and mergers • Increase in service sector jobs • Decrease in union jobs • Cesar Chavez • United Farm Workers (UFW) • Microsoft • Bill Gates

43. The New Mass Culture Debate • FCC regulations • Self-censorship • Mass Cultural studies: • No longer made distinctions between lowbrow and highbrow • Analyzed the cultural icons and the way consumer integrated products of mass culture into their everyday lives • “Multiculturalism”

44. Social Activism • 1960s style activism embeds itself in American life • "Million Man March“ (1995) • "Promise Keepers“ (1999) • International Christian organization for men • Promote abstinence • “Take back the night” • Media coverage slips as protest activity increased

45. Women’s Issues • The pill • Greater control over reproduction • Affected sexual behavior • Struggles over gender issues • “Feminization of poverty” • “Glass ceilings” • Sexual harassment ruling, 1986 • Thomas-Hill hearings (1991) • Political gender gap • "Tailhook" (1991)

46. African American Activism • "Afrocentrism” • Henry Lewis Gates, Jr. • Greater recognition of black literature and accomplishments • Toni Morrison • 1st black woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize for Literature (1993) • O.J. Simpson trial (1995) • “Racial profiling” • Confederate flag issue • Congressional Black Caucus

47. American Indian Activism • American Indian Movement (AIM) • Civil Rights Act (1968) • “Indian Bill of Rights” • Tribally Controlled College Assistance Act • Native American Rights Fund (NARF) • Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988) • Powwows

48. Dilemmas of Antidiscrimination Efforts • “Affirmative action“ • Quotas and the issue of reverse discrimination • Title IX (1972): "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." • Proposition 209 (1996) • Public institutions may not consider race, sex or ethnicity • Opposed by affirmative action activists

49. The New Right • Mid-1970s: diverse coalition called “New Right” • Anti-communist and anti-domestic spending programs • “New Right” members came from: • Older activists • Phyllis Schlafly • William F. Buckley’s Firing Line

50. The New Religious Right • The “New Right” attracted grassroots support from Protestants in fundamentalist and evangelical churches • Effect of Roe v. Wade (1973) mobilized fundamentalist and evangelical leaders • Conservative Catholics • Jerry Falwell • Constitutional dilemma: strict separation of church and state perceived as infringing on the “free exercise of religion