Ch. 8

1. Ch. 8 Sexuality and Society

2. Defining Sex and Gender Sex: biological differences between males and females. Gender: the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males based on meanings, beliefs, and practices that a group associates with femininity or masculinity Intersexed: having unrecognizable genitalia or both male and female genitalia Transgendered: one’s gender not the same as biological sex

3. The biological distinction between females and males • Primary sex characteristics: the genitals, organs used for reproduction • Secondary sex characteristics: bodily development, apart from the genitals, that distinguishes biologically mature females and males

4. Cultural Variation in Sexuality • Our biology does not dictate any specific ways of being sexual • Almost every sexual practice shows considerable variation from one society to another • Sexual positions and practices • Showing affection • Regulation of openness and timing of sexuality also varies

5. Incest Taboo • Is a cultural universal • The norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between close relatives isfound in every society • However, different norms exist among cultures as to which blood relations are permissible as sexual partners and which are not. • Why? • Cultural: inbreeding may have detrimental outcomes • Or is a general human preference for group exogamy • Westermarck effect: discourages sexual relations with individuals with whom they were raised • Biological: instinct to avoid mating with close relations

6. The Sexual Revolution and Sexual Counter-Revolution • Sexual Revolution (1960’s): • Kinsey’s studies (1948, 1953) were bestsellers • Youth culture (late 60s) “If it feels good, do it” • The “pill” (1960) removed fear of pregnancy • Now few remain abstinent till marriage • Sexual Counter-Revolution (1980’s) • Conservative movement • saw “moral decline” -> return to “family values” • Against practices associated with the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS

7. Sexual Attitudes in Canada • Sexuality was regulated in Canada by the Criminal code until 1969 • Canadian attitudes toward non-marital and extra-marital sex and homosexuality have become more tolerant since then (see Table 8.1)

8. Adult Sexual Activity and Satisfaction • Canadians claim to be more sexually satisfied than Americans, though not by much • Austria ranks first, Canada ranks third, and United States fifth in percentage of people reporting sexual satisfaction over age 40 • The lowest five are Thailand, China, and Japan • More sexual contentment in countries with greater gender equality (Marx and Engels said this too!)

9. Extra-marital Sex • It is widely condemned (more than 85% in Canada and over 90% in US condemn it) but… • 33% of men and 35 % of women report a partner who cheated • 53 percent of married people would forgive an affair • 63 percent of divorces can be attributed to affairs • Pew Global Poll (2014): cultural variation in attitudes toward extra-marital affairs, but in most countries, majority believe it is morally wrong.

10. Sexual Orientation • A person’s romantic and emotional attraction to another person • Heterosexuality: to the other sex • Homosexuality: to the same sex • Bisexuality: to people of both sexes • Asexuality: no sexual attraction to people of either sex

12. Sexual Orientation:Nature or Nurture? • Nature (biological) • A growing body of evidence links sexual orientation to the difference in the size of the hypothalamus (in brain, regulates hormones) • Nurture (sociocultural) • People in any society attach meanings to sexual activity, and these meanings differ from place to place and over time • Most likely, a combination

13. Homosexuality • “an attraction, physical and emotional, to people of the same sex.” (Tepperman et al.) • “a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with individuals of the “same” sex (homosexuality), the “opposite” sex (heterosexuality), or both (bisexuality)” (Kendal et al.) • Can be part of behaviour or identity • Homosexual and gay: males who prefer “same” sex • Lesbian: females who prefer “same” sex • Bisexual: those who prefer both • Straight: heterosexuals who prefer “opposite” sex

14. Criteria for Classifying Individuals as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual • Sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender • Sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender • Self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or bisexual

15. Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation • Gender identity refers to one’s sense of maleness or femaleness in society • Formed by age three • Important aspect of one’s self concept • Emerges as a significant aspect of identity during adolescence • Sexual identity refers to a sense of one’s attractiveness to others comfort with one’s body and sexual attitudes and feelings • Sexual orientation - level of attraction to the same, opposite, or both sexes • Homosexual orientation • Heterosexual orientation • Bisexual orientation

16. Opposing views: Read…. • The Truth about Sex Differences • (Psychology Today, 2017) • And listen to…. • Rethinking Testosterone • (Quirks and Quarks, CBC Radio 2018)

17. In the Past… • Homosexuality has often been regarded as: • A sin • A function of some form of physical and mental pathology • In Aug. 6, 1885, the British Parliament voted to make homosexual acts a criminal offense. • Many other Western countries soon followed suit • In 1930s Germany, Hitler launched campaign against not just Jews but also other groups… • Thousands of homosexuals sent to concentration camps. • Gay men identified with pink triangles and lesbians with black triangles.

18. More Recently… • Dr. Alfred Kinsey’ s research (1953) instrumental in the normalization of homosexual behavior • Sexual feelings and behaviors towards the same sex were not abnormal • Researchers concluded that homosexuals cannot be distinguished from non-homosexuals in psychological terms • Kinsey placed sexuality on a continuum: Homosexualityheterosexuality • Thomas Szasz – Psychiatrists replaced the church in labeling homosexuality an illness • Canada: homosexuality was decriminalized 1969

19. Canadian Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Year Approval/Acceptance 1996 22% 1999 34 2001 44 2007 70 2013 80 (source: Environics Research Group 2001 Poll and Pew 2013 Poll )

20. Our Changing Attitudes…(CBC Digital Archives) • Go to the CBC Digital Archives to see the changes in Canadian attitudes and understanding by watching the 1959 clip “A Psychiatric Problem” and the 1978 clip “The Rocky Road to Gay Rights” • 2013 Pew Global Poll “broad acceptance of homosexuality in North America, the European Union, and much of Latin America, but equally widespread rejection in predominantly Muslim nations and in Africa, as well as in parts of Asia and in Russia”

21. Global Attitudes on Homosexuality 2013(Source: http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/)

22. Global Attitudes on Same Sex Marriage 2013(Source: http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/)

23. 2010 Environics Focus Canada Poll • 2010, nearly seven in 10 (68 per cent) said they were in favour of marriage for same-sex couples (Focus Canada Poll 2010) • Seventy-nine per cent of Canadians aged 18 to 29 are in favour, as compared to 55 per cent of those aged 60 and older. In the United States, 70 per cent of those born after 1980 support same-sex marriage, as compared to 31 per cent of those born between 1928 and 1945.

24. Environics Focus Canada 2010

25. The Gay Lifestyle: Interpersonal Relationships and Domestic Arrangements • Studies point to similarities and differences between homosexual and heterosexual relationships • Interestingly, domestic arrangements often mirror those of heterosexual couples • Influence of patriarchal culture? • Long-lived partnerships between gay men are not uncommon but they are not typical • Lesbians tend to attach a high priority to domestic partnerships

26. The Homosexual Subculture • Homosexual subculture consists of the institutions within the gay community • Gay magazines and periodicals • Bars, Movie theaters • Parks • Businesses • Social clubs and organizations • A major function of the subculture is that it provides a way for its members to understand and accept their orientation • Homosexual organizations aid in the pursuit of political rights

27. Who “Becomes” a Homosexual? • No direct link between genetic traits and homosexuality but growing scientific literature provides evidence for biological basis • Large portion of homosexuals attribute their orientation to early childhood or support a biological explanation • Social scientists largely attribute homosexuality to one’s social environment • Believe sexual behavior is learned

28. Labeling Theory (Symbolic Interactionist) Explanation: • Homosexuality as a process of labeling (Erving Goffman) that involves four stages • 1. Sensitization • 2. Dissociation and significance • Identity Confusion—feeling different from others • 3. Coming out • Seeking out others who are openly lesbian or gay and experimenting • 4. Commitment • Integrating self concept and accepting a label by pursuing a way of life that conforms to the label

29. Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation Exists Because of: • Homophobia: the irrational and excessive fear of intolerance of homosexuals and homosexuality • Biphobia: fear and intolerance of bisexuals and bisexual lifestyles • Transphobia: fear of transsexual and transgendered people • Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is the only normal, natural, and moral mode of relating, and hence is superior to homosexuality or bisexuality. In our culture, heterosexuality is the norm and many people are at least somewhat “heterosexist.”

30. The Social Problem of Homophobia • Variance from the societal norm of heterosexuality is not a social problem • The societal response, whether it is in the form of prejudice, discrimination (institutional or individual) or homophobia is a social problem.

31. Sources of Homophobia • Homophobia tends to be associated with • Older age, less education, higher religiosity, conservatism, authoritarianism and traditionalism • Less personal contact • Stronger male gender identity and distorted notions of masculinity • Study by Adams (U. of Georgia) showed that those who scored high on a "Homophobia Scale" demonstrated significant sexual arousal to male homosexual erotic stimuli.

32. Homophobic Discrimination • Typically, three most common types of discrimination and oppression are: • Ideological • People believe gays are immoral and belittle or show hostility, deny jobs and housing, etc. • Many Judeo-Christian religions and Islam generally find homosexuality to be a sin • Stereotypical beliefs equate sexual orientation and other practices i.e pedophilia – but is nearly always committed by heterosexual men • Legal • Canada decriminalized homosexuality in 1969 and in 2005 officially legalized same-sex marriage • Occupational • Since 1995, illegal in Canada to refuse employment or benefits on basis of sexual orientation

33. Overall… • Homophobia (including biphobia, transphobia, and heterosexism) seems to be more pronounced in the U.S. than in Canada • The result of legislation (Charter of Rights, recognition of the legality of gay marriage, etc.) and activism (i.e. Pride) has had a positive effect on Canadian attitudes. • Canadian research shows an increase in tolerance toward homosexuality

34. What are Canadian Moral Attitudes?

35. Other Issues Related to Sexuality • Teen pregnancy: declining but higher % of unmarried teen pregnancies than in the 1950s • Pornography: sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal; its value causes debate esp. amongst feminists (exploitation) • Sexual Assault and Rape: violent acts that use sex to hurt, humiliate or control another person (see Rape Myths, P. 215) • Prostitution: selling of sexual services • Prostitutes have little protection and are frequently victims of sexual abuse and violence • Watch: CBC’s The Sex Trade Up Close (2015)

36. Sociological Perspectives: Structural Functionalist • Focus is on the relationship between social structure and sexual orientation, e.g., norms and laws function to preserve social structures like the family, and how sexual orientation is said to threaten it • Homosexual conduct because violates norms and undermines stability (dysfunction) • Legalization of same-sex marriage and homosexuality may be dysfunctional for society • Latent functions of prostitution: sex for those without access and in loveless marriages

37. Perspectives: Social Conflict • Focus is on tensions in society and differences in interests and power among opposing groups • People with power have own attitudes enforced • Norms pertaining to compulsory heterosexuality reflect beliefs of dominant group • Pornography reflection of male power • Homophobia is like racism and sexism • Repeal laws based on discrimination and pass laws that ban discrimination • Continue activism to gain equal rights

38. Perspectives: Symbolic Interactionist • Views sexual behaviour as learned behaviour • Examines process by which individuals come to identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or straight • Acquiring status of heterosexual is easier because it is the established norm • Sexual orientation is a master status, the most significant status a person possesses, for many homosexuals. It is especially significant when linked to other subordinate group statuses • Society should be more tolerant. • Legal and social barriers that prevent full participation in society should be removed

39. Perspectives: Feminist • Focus, originally, was on dominant group (men in power) imposing its agenda • Norms and values about heterosexuality work to promote interests of men • More recently a shift has occurred from critiques of patriarchy to a more inclusive politics that values all diversity and encourages acceptance of all people • Promote sexual pluralism all people need to support each other to combat oppression • Everyone can then fight against the variety of oppressions

40. Perspectives: Queer Theory • Rejects notions of “normal” or “natural” in favour of social construction so any and every form of sexuality is acceptable • The term “Queer” is reclaimed as a means of self-identification (“ form of tertiary deviance”) • Refuse to define self or others

41. Guest Speaker Feb. 5th • Amanda Jean Pearson • Originally from Woodstock, ON • Now lives and studies in London • Former King’s student and studied Psychology on Main Campus • Read: Health of people who are transgender, a community that sees high rates of depression, focus of Canadian medical journal's special issue…https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/transgender-teens-cmaj-1.4984842