The End of Infancy

1. The End of Infancy Chapter 6 The Development of Children (5th ed.) Cole, Cole & Lightfoot

2. Overview of the Journey • Biological Maturation • Perceptual-Motor Coordination • New Modes of Thought • Child-Caregiver Relations • A New Sense of Self • The End of Infancy

3. Biological Maturation • Rate of growth is slower than during the first year • Height: 29  38 inches • Weight: 20  33 lbs. • Accelerated myelination • Within cerebral cortex and between brain stem and cortex • Leads to new self-awareness, emotional responses, better problem solving, voluntary control of behavior, enhanced analysis of visual and auditory input, and language acquisition • Neuron branching close to adult magnitudes • Each neuron has multiple connections with others, usually numbering in the thousands

4. Perceptual-Motor Coordination Locomotion Manual dexterity Control of elimination

5. Perceptual Motor: Locomotion • Walking by about 12 months old: • Development, integration, coordination and practice • Upright posture and Leg alternation • Weight shifting and Sense of balance • Enhanced ability to perceive conditions in the environment Experience crawling up down slopes does not seem to carry over to walking.

6. Increasing Ability due to practice and experience

7. Perceptual Motor: Fine Motor Skill Coordination and movementincreases significantly from 12 to 30 months • Throw a ball, turn pages of a book, string beads • Snip paper with scissors, build a 6 block tower • Hold a cup of liquid without spilling • Dress themselves (but not buttons or laces)

8. Perceptual Motor: Control of Elimination Toilet training • Toddler learns to eliminate when placed on the potty • Can stay dry during the day by the age of 2 (with adult watchfulness) • Do not typically stay dry at night until the age of 4 Requirements • Must be ready, willing and able • Sensory pathways from bladder and bowels must mature enough to transmit signals to the cortex • Learn to associate signals with need to eliminate • Learn to tighten sphincters to prevent elimination, and loosen them to permit it

9. New Modes of Thought Symbolic Representation Object Permanence Pretend Play Ability to Categorize Pictures and Models

10. Evidence of Symbolic Representation • Imagines an object not physically present • Shown by systematic search for hidden objects • Systematic problem-solving • Trial and error to reach a goal • Begins imaginary play • Imitates events after they have occurred • Understands visual models • Begins to draw • Begins imitation of writing • Begins to “read” familiar stories

11. Object Permanence: Substage 5 12 - 18 months old

12. Mastery of Object Permanence • Substage 6 (18-24 months) • “Well it wasn’t where I expected it to be, but it must be here somewhere.” • Able to anticipate the trajectory of a moving object that has disappeared behind a barrier • Pictures a series of events in her mind before acting

13. Pretend or Symbolic Play • Toward end of 2nd year, “imitate” actions that adults do • Ability to represent the mental states of other people • One object stands for another (banana for a telephone) • Children perform actions more advanced than what they can do on their own • Lasts longer and is more sophisticated with mother or older sibling than when alone

14. Ability to Categorize • 18 months: Create a small workspace in front of them and put 2 or 3 objects of the same kind in it • 24 months: Divide objects into two distinct categories, working on one category at a time • 30 months: Simultaneously work on two major categories and create sub-categories in which the objects are grouped according to color as well

15. Pictures and Models • 2 years: Can rarely use pictorial information to find an object hidden in the room • 2 ½ years: Can use a picture, but not a model of the room to find the object • 3 years: Can use the model as a representation of the room to find the hidden object

16. Development ofChild-Caregiver Relations Attachment

17. Attachment • An emotional bond most prominent in infants from 6-18 months of age, evidenced by separation anxiety • Explanations • Erikson: Become attached to people who reliably attend to their needs and who otherwise foster a sense of trust • Bowlby: Provides a balance between an infant’s need for safety and a variety of learning experiences Mary Ainsworth: Research on the “strange situation” Three Types of Attachment • Secure • Anxious/avoidant • Anxious/resistant

18. Types of Attachment • Secure • Child reacts positively to a stranger as long as mother is present • Becomes upset when mother leaves and is unlikely to be consoled by a stranger • Calms down as soon as mother reappears • Anxious/avoidant • Child is indifferent to where mother is sitting • May or may not cry when mother leaves • Is as likely to be comforted by a stranger as by mother • Is indifferent when mother returns • Anxious/resistant • Child stays close to mother and appears anxious even when mother is near • Becomes very upset when mother leaves but is not comforted by her return • Simultaneously seeks renewed contact with mother and resists her efforts to comfort

19. Harlow’s Monkeys • The cloth mother, which does not provide nourishment, is seen as a secure base • The wire mother, which does provide nourishment, is not seen as a secure base • This contradicts drive-reduction theories of attachment by Freud, that children are attached to mother because she provides food • Soothing tactile sensations provide a baby with a sense of security that is more important to the formation of attachment than food • Social interactions seem to be necessary for healthy emotional development Harlow, 1959

20. Causes of Variation in Patterns of Attachment • Parental behaviors • Mothers’ sensitivity to their infants’ signals of need seems to be related to higher levels of secure attachment • Characteristics of the child • Infants who had spent more time playing with objects than interacting sociably with their mothers were more likely to display signs of insecure attachment later on • Family influences • Maternal depression and marital discord appear to be related to lower levels of secure attachment • Cultural influences • Children who slept at home displayed a significantly higher level of secure attachments

21. Developing a Sense of Self Self-recognition Secondary emotions

22. Self-Recognition • 3 months: Little interest at all • 4 months: Reach out and touch mirror image • 10 months: Reach behind them if a toy is slowly lowered behind their back while they are looking in the mirror • 18 months: Will reach for their own nose when they see the red spot on it; when asked, “Who’s that?” will answer “Me” • 18-24 months(begins 2-word utterances) • “I do it!” “Becky all done” • 24 months old • Upset if something is missing or dirty • “Yucky” & “Fix it” • Goal to use all available blocks or put every doll into baby carriage • Actively seeks adult help in reaching goals and standards

23. Primary & Secondary Emotions • By 12 months - primary • Joy, fear, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust • By 24 months - secondary • Embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt, envy, etc. (e.g., self-satisfied smile, hang head, cover face, try to hide) • depends on toddler’s new abilities to recognize, talk about, and think about themselves in relation to other people or in terms of a rule or desired goal

24. The 24-month-old’s Bio-Social-Behavioral Shift