Topic 7

1. Topic 7 INFORMATION PROCESSING

2. INFORMATION PROCESSING • Listening & visualizing  an important element in communication. • Through auditory perception and visual perception (stimulus)… • A person can understand what message the other person trying to convey • How to respond back to the perceptions • Stimulus received  is then process (information processing)  where individual digest (process) what information he has learn from his environment  ten store them in the memory.

3. Information Processing • Cognitive psychology developed around late 50’s. • Primary focus of cognitive psychology is on memory (the storage & retrieval of information). • Information Processing theorists proposed that like the computer the human mind is a system that processes information through the application of logical rules and strategies. • Like the computer, the mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can process.

4. Information Processing • The way people • take in, • process , and • act on information focusing on attention, perception & memory. • This group of information theorist used computer as a model for the way human think, where they look at:

5. Information Processing Approach • What is memory? • Memory is the retention of learned material • Information processing model are used to • describe and explain cognitive (mental) process, such as thinking & problem solving. • Whenever one's senses are activated (physical energy) the information immediately is placed in sensory store/register  Information that one "attends to" is transferred to Short Term Memory (STM) Information in STM that is rehearsed is transferred to Long Term Memory (LTM).

6. Information Processing Approach • Humans have three types of memory:- • Sensory Register • Short Term memory • Long Term memory • Each type of memory has two characteristics: • a. Capacity • large capacity/small capacity/unlimited capacity (?) • b. Duration • brief duration/ short duration/ unlimited duration(?) • The information processing approach focuses on the study of the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts, environments, or ecologies.

7. Sensory register Part of memory that receives all the information a person senses from the environment and stores it fleetingly. Short term memory A part where new information is stored temporarily, until it is either lost or placed into long term memory Also known as working memory (working space), where a decision must be made to discard information or to transfer it to permanent storage, in long-term memory. Long Term memory Part of memory which has unlimited capacity & can hold information indefinitely. the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which information may be stored permanently and from which it may be later retrieved. Types of Memory

8. Information Processing Approach • When people pay attention to an information the sensory register will pick the information  goes into the working memory. • Once in working memory  information is processed/ practiced within 15-20 sec  then transfer to the long term memory. • If people don’t pay attention  the information is lost. • New information will be transferred to Long term memory when : • it is linked in some way with prior knowledge already in the LTM. • Information is translated into meaningful form (encoded) • Information in the LTM is retrieve through a process of identification & recall for a particular purpose.

9. The four main beliefs of the information-processing approach • When a person perceives, encodes, represents, and stores information from the environment in his mind/retrieves that information, he is thinking. • Thinking also includes responding to any constraints or limitations on memory processes. • The proper focus of study is the role of change mechanism in development. • Four critical mechanisms work together to bring about change in children’s cognitive skills: • Encoding • Strategy construction • Automatization • Generalization • To solve problems effectively, children must encode critical information about a problem and then use this encoded information and relevant prior knowledge to construct a strategy to deal with the problem

10. The four main beliefs of the information-processing approach • Development is driven by self modification. • According to the information-processing approach, children play an active role in their own development. Through self-modification, the child uses knowledge and strategies she has acquired from earlier problem solution to modify her responses to a new situation or problem. • In this way, she builds newer and more sophisticated responses from prior knowledge • Investigators must perform careful task analysis of the problem situations they present to children, i.e. child performance may be limited by: • the child’s own level of development, and • the nature of the task . • Thus a child may possess the basic ability necessary to perform a particular task when it is presented in a simple form , but if if extra or misleading information is added to the same task, the child may become confused and be unable to perform it.

11. Strategies In Encoding/ Memorizing • Chunking • Rehearsal • Imagery • Mnemonics • Schema activation • Level of processing

12. Strategies in encoding/ memorizing • Chunking • Breaking the information into manageable chunk. • eg. OFHRTJUDYCX  OFH RTJ UDY CX • Rehearsal • Simple repetition • Elaboration  when info to be remembered is linked to other information • Imagery • Conjured image of an object/related meaning.

13. Strategies in encoding/ memorizing • Mnemonics • Memory strategy to help remember information • Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned information with well learned information. • Schema activation • Strategy to use with encoding complex info.  relates new information to prior knowledge. • Level of processing • Material that is only skimmed will not be as deeply processed as material that is studied in detail.

14. There are four major theories of how we humans process information: • Stage approach • Levels-of-processing theory • Parallel distributed processing theory • Connectionistic models

15. Stage ModelAtkinson and Shriffin (1968) • The focus of this model is on how information is stored in memory. • The model is based on the work of Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) and proposes that information is processed and stored in three stages: • Sensory memory (sensory register) (SR) • Short term memory (STM) • Long term memory (LTM) • This model viewed information processing as moving through a series of processing units — (SR, STM, LTM) — in each of which it may be stored, either fleetingly or permanently.

16. Levels-of-processing theoryCraik and Lockhart (1972). • The major proposition is  all stimuli that activate a sensory receptor cell are permanently stored in memory. • According to these researchers, the issue is not storage, but retrieval. • Rather than hypothesize that information is processed in stages, Craik and Lockhart believe that retrieval of information is based on the amount of elaboration used as information is processed. • This is done on a continuum from perception, through attention, to labeling, and finally meaning.

17. Parallel distributed processing theory • The parallel-distributed processing model states that information is processed simultaneously by several different parts of the memory system, rather than sequentially as hypothesized by Atkinson-Shiffrin. • The model postulates that information is not inputted into the memory system in a step by step manner but instead, facts or images are distributed to all parts in the memory system at once. • "These models assume that information processing takes place through interactions of large numbers of simple processing elements called units, each sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units." (McLelland, J., Rumelhart, D., & Hinton, G., 1986,p.10)

18. Connectionistic models Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) • The connectionistic model proposed by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) extends the parallel-distributed processing model. • This model emphasizes the fact that information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections. • It is one of the dominant forms of current research in cognitive psychology and is consistent with the most recent brain research. • It is also consistent with the levels-of-processing approach in that the more connections to a single idea or concept (i.e., the more extensively elaboration is used), the more likely it is to be remembered.

19. Information Processing Model: The Stage Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Information Is Processed & Stored In 3 Stages: • Sensory Memory • Short Term Memory • Long Term Memory

20. Information Processing Model: The Stage Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

21. Sensory Memory (SM) • Memory starts with a sensory input from the environment , i.e. sensory as source of information (vision, light, sound, smell, heat, etc) • In the SM  input are held for a very brief time  several seconds. • Sensory receptor (neurons) send this message (receive from sensory organ)  as a form of energy to the brain. • Through the process of transduction (change from one form of energy to another), a memory is created. • Memory in the SM is very short • Vision = less than ½ second; Hearing = less than 3 sec • SM is a very important stage because the person must attend to the information receive at this initial stage in order to transfer it (info) to the next stage. • Individual are more like to pay attention to a stimulus if: • It has an interesting features • It activates a known pattern

22. Short Term Memory (STM) • Also known as working memory  Relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time. • STM is created through:- • Attention to an external stimulus • Attention to internal thoughts • Both external stimulus and internal thoughts. • STM will last for 15-20 sec unless is repeated (known as maintenance rehearsal)  can last for up to 20 min. • Attention  focused on items of information repeated over & over (silently/loudly) processed in such a way & link it to other prior information that has already been stored in the memory. • Elaborative rehearsal: giving the material organization & meaning as it is being rehearsed  use strategies that give meaning & organization to material  so that the to-be-remembered information can be fitted in with the existing organized long term memories.

23. Long Term Memory (LTM) • Unprocessed information  will be lost/ forgotten. • When information are placed in LTM, they are put into organized categories  where they reside for days, months, years, life time. • When you remember something  a copy of the item is withdrawn (retrieve) from the LTM. • Some theories believe  there is no true forgetting from the long-term memory  because once information is stored, it is there for good. • If/when we seem to forget  it is because we have trouble retrieving or getting access to what has been stored (information stored in unorganized way). • Thus, information in the Long Term Memory must be encoded, stored and placed in memory in organized way  for easy retrieval.

24. SCL • Discuss on the following theories of information processing: • Levels-of-processing theory • Parallel distributed processing theory • Connectionistic models

25. Divided Attention

26. What is Attention? • What is Divided Attention?

27. What is Attention? • Attention is….. • a concept studied in cognitive psychology that refers to how we actively process specific information present in our environment. • the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. • Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources.

28. Attention • Examples… • Listening to a mobile phone conversation while driving a car • Listening carefully to what someone is saying while ignoring other ‘noisy’ conversations in a room. • Numerous sights, sounds and sensations going on around you – the pressure of your feet against the floor, the sight of the street out of a nearby window, the soft warmth of your shirt, the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a friend. • How do we manage to experience all of these sensations and still focus on just one element of our environment?

29. How are we able to concentrate on one specific thing while there are many stimulus around us? • According to William James, • attention “is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what may seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughts…It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others” 1. • Think of attention as a highlighter, i.e. as you read through a section of text in a book, the highlighted section stands out, causing you to focus your interest on that area. • Attention allows you to “tune out” information, sensations and perceptions that are not relevant at the moment and instead focus your energy on the information that is important.

30. What is Divided attention? • Divided attention is • the condition of paying attention to more than one stimulus or to a stimulus presented in more than one modality. • The process by which an individual can perform multiple tasks at the same time. • An individual attention can be divided between two: • Verbal task • Visual task

31. A person can pay simultaneous attention on both verbal and visual tasks because: • They have enough practice (often do it) • They are able to divide their attention automatically (acquire a high degree of automaticity) • Our brain has the ability to pay attention to selected aspect of the environment and further divide the attention between tasks (verbal & visual).

32. CAN WE REALLY MULTITASK?

33. Study suggests why cell phones and driving don’t mix • Study suggests why cell phones and driving don’t mix: • According to a study carried out by a Johns Hopkins University psychologist, the reason why talking on a cell phone makes drivers less safe because… • the brain can’t simultaneously give full attention to both the visual task of driving and the auditory task of listening • “Directing attention to listening effectively ‘turns down the volume’ on input to the visual parts of the brain. The evidence we have right now strongly suggests that attention is strictly limited - a zero-sum game. When attention is deployed to one modality (for e.g. , talking on a cell phone) - it necessarily extracts a cost on another modality - in this case, the visual task of driving.”

34. Cerebral Cortex • Thin layer on the brain’s surface that include lobes or sections. • Occipital lobe = process vision. • Temporal Lobe = process hearing • Parietal Lobe= process sensory stimuli • Frontal Lobe = critical thinking & problem solving

35. Automaticity Processing • What is automaticity? • Automaticity refers to knowing how to perform some arbitrary task at a competent level without requiring conscious effort—i.e. it is a form of unconscious competence. • Automaticity is the ability to do things without occupying the mind with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an automatic response pattern or habit  i.e. performing of a primary task is minimally affected by other ongoing tasks • People often refer to automaticity by saying “I can do the task on auto-pilot or in my sleep”. • Examples speaking, bicycle-riding, assembly-line work, and driving a car. • It is usually the result of learning, repetition and practice.

36. Automaticity Processing • Practice played a major role in determining one’s performance. • After an activity is sufficiently practiced, it is possible to focus the mind on other activities or thoughts while undertaking an automaticized activity (for example, holding a conversation or planning a speech while driving a car).

37. Practice played a major role in determining one’s performance. • Try to remember your first few driving lessons/ to learn to cycle/ remembering a song, etc. … is it difficult? • Do you have to concentrate on what to do? What not to do? Etc… • But, the more you practiced, the more automatic your action (e.g. driving) became, until you could actually drive without thinking about what to do. • In fact while driving, at the same time your mind could be thinking about something else, you are talking to someone or you could be listening to the radio, etc… • Processing activities become automatic as a result of prolonged practice

38. Why does error occur in information processing and action? • Why do we make mistakes?!! • Slips/mistakes are amusing, harmless & happen to all of us but sometimes it may lead to embarrassment or dangerous situations they usually seem like harmless oddities. Examples of mistakes:- • Forgetting about an important information… • Forgetting to turn on headlights when driving a car at night is also common. • Slip of action  we meant something else but we said something else… “left  we mean right” • A story of an air-traffic controller  “An air-traffic controller once told a plane to taxi to the left runway when he meant the right. • Such a left/right slip is the most common of verbal confusions, but in this case it could have led to tragedy (fortunately, it didn’t).

39. Why do we make mistakes? • According to Sigmund Freud, slips occur due to a person’s unconscious wish or intentions. • Slips also can occur… • when stray information throws off human information-processing system. • As a result from competition and intermixing among underlying mental-processing mechanisms, often working parallel to one another.

40. According to Donald Norman, most actions are carried out by subconscious mechanisms i.e.We 'will' an action. • The intention, once specified, releases control processes, or "scheme," that lead to the exquisitely timed, complex motor actions involved in manipulation of mind and body. For exampleWhen I drive home from work, the appropriate schemes are activated by previous actions. I need not plan the details; I simply decide and act”. • Slips also may occur when different parts of the information-processing sequence go awry . • The likelihood of human error also increases when there is stress.

41. An example of description error • A chartered airliner flying from Houston to Montreal crashed exactly on the border between the United States and Canada. A major political issue developed over the following question: In which country should the survivors be buried? • Most people puzzle over the choice of country. In fact, the story was made up to trap the unwary: it is the dead who should be buried, not the survivors. • The story sets us up to be lazy mentally—to except the critical leftovers to be the dead ones—so we don’t process the word "survivors" deeply enough.

42. An example of selection errors are similarly common. For instance: • In getting ready for a party, one person carefully prepared a cake and a salad, then put the cake in the refrigerator and the salad in the oven. Or…. • eating your friend’s sandwich from a plate that looks like yours, or • putting the top of the sugar bowl on top of a coffee mug of the same size. • Tossing away your sweaty T-shirt into the toilet, instead of into the laundry basket.

43. Concept Formation

44. What is concepts? • Words are not concepts  Words are signs for concepts. • Concepts are generalized ideas that represent a class of objects or events  an abstract idea/mental symbol, typically associated with a corresponding representation in language or symbol, that denotes all of the objects in a given category or class of entities, interactions, phenomena, or relationships between them. • Whats the difference between perception and concepts? • Perceptions is based on a particular images of individual objects • Concepts  cannot be visualized (not image)  They can only be thought about, or designated, by means of a name.

45. What is Concept formation ? • Concepts are the categorization of objects, events, or people that share common properties. • By using concepts, we are able to organize complex notions into simpler, and therefore more easily usable forms. • Concept formation is the process by which we learn to form classes of things, event, people, etc. • According to Piaget & Vygotsky children form their own concepts through experience, assimilate existing concepts such as cultural values, norms & beliefs from adults  then further create and develop their own concepts as they mature toward adulthood.

46. Concept formation …. • Based on combination between :- • the physical, concrete/abstract characteristics of objects, logico-mathematical principle, and • everyday experiences (with the natural and social worlds) and our subjective, personal, and cultural interpretations we give to them • The combination of this lead to the creation and defining of new concepts  as we interact with our world, seeking to understand all that we encounter and innovating, creating new and better concepts and substantial objects that improve the quality of our lives.

47. SCL Discuss the following:- • How does children form science and mathematics concepts? • How automaticity processing occur in a person? • Why do we make mistakes?