Chapter 14 New Directions in Thought and Culture in the 16 th and 17 th Centuries

1. Chapter 14New Directions in Thought and Culture in the 16th and 17th Centuries AP European History Mrs. Tucker

2. Key Topics • The astronomical theories of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton and the Scientific Revolution; • Impact of the new science on philosophy • Social setting of early modern science • Women and the Scientific revolution • Approaches to science and religion • Witchcraft and witch-hunts

3. Scientific Revolution • Not everything was “new” Much of this was rethinking from the ancient and late middle ages; • The Scientific Revolution was NOT rapid; • Term Scientist did not exist until 1830s • Scientific societies and academies developed in the latter half of the 17th century; • New knowledge emerged in Medicine, Chemistry, and Natural history; but the most popular were the strides made in Astronomy;

4. The Ptolemaic System • Ptolemy wrote the Almagest • Standard explanation of mathematical astronomy since 150 C.E. • Geocentrism • Planets moved uniformly about an epicycle and the center moved uniformly about a deferent;

5. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) • Polish priest & astronomer • On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) • Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616

6. Heliocentric Universe • heliocentric versus geocentric view of the solar system • challenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity • Copernican system no more accurate than Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground • Publishes on deathbed;

7. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • Believed in Earth-Centered System; • Suggested the moon and sun revolved around earth and other planets revolved around sun; • He produced tremendous astronomical data for his successors to work with;

8. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Brahe’s assistant and inherited his work; • Belived in Copernican Theory but found that the motion of planets were elliptical not in epicycles; • Wrote The New Astronomy in 1609 using Copernicus’s sun-centered universe and Brahe’s empircal data.

9. Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) • Italian mathematician, Physicist, & natural philosopher • broke ground using telescope—found heavens much more complex than previously understood • became high-profile Copernican advocate • articulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws

10. Galileo Facing the Inquisition • Representative incident: Roman Catholic authorities condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life • Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992

11. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) • English Mathematician and Physicist; • discovered laws of gravity—all physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction (gravity); explained planetary orbits • explained gravity mathematically • Principia Mathematica (1687)

12. Isaac Newton

13. Francis Bacon (1521 – 1626) • English lawyer, government official, historian, essayist • Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation • Set intellectual tone conducive to scientific inquiry • Attacked scholastic adherence to intellectual authorities of the past • championed innovation and change as goals contributing to human improvement • two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature • since both books share the same author, they must be compatible

14. René Descartes (1596 – 1650) • Gifted mathematician, inventor of analytic geometry • Most important contribution: scientific method relying more on deduction (deriving specific facts from general principles) than empiricism

15. René Descartes • Discourse on Method (1637)—rejection of scholastic philosophy and education in favor of mathematical models; rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason • Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to comprehend the world • Divided world into two categories: mind (thinking) & body (extension)

16. Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) • Most original political philosopher of 17th c. • Enthusiastic supporter of New Science • for absolutist government • Humans not basically social, but basically self-centered • State of nature is a state of war; life in this state is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

17. Thomas Hobbes - Leviathan • Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651) • Leviathan: rigorous philosophical justification • “The right of nature... is the liberty each man hath to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life.”

18. John Locke (1632 – 1704) • Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c. • Contrast with Hobbes • First Treatise of Government: argued against patriarchal models of government • Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed

19. Two Treatises of Government • Humans basically creatures of reason and goodwill • Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious toleration • Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind as birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin

20. Women in the Scientific Revolution • Generally excluded from the institutions of European intellectual life • Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academy • Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy

21. Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673) • Married William Cavendish, Marquis of Newcastle in 1645 • Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) • Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668) • Asked to attend a session of Royal Society of London which met with much controversy

22. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) • French Mathematician and Inventor; • Mathematical prodigy – studied Geometry proving Euclid’s 32nd proposition and finding error in Descartes work at 13; • opposed both dogmatism and skepticism • erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than erroneous unbelief • In 1968 a computer programming language was named for him, (PASCAL);

23. Pascaline • The Pascaline, the first accurate calculator; • Was not a commercial success – although it could do the work of 6 accountants, people feared it would cause unemployment. • Pascal to studying religion after rejection of his calculator; • Believed a “leap of faith” required in religion;

24. Rise of Academic Societies • The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities • Establishment of “institutions of sharing”: • Royal Society of London (1660) • Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) • French Academy of Science (1666) • Berlin Academy of Science (1700)

25. New Philosophy • Scientific revolution  major reexamination of Western philosophy • Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker (Deism) • Purpose of studying nature changes: • search for symbolic/sacramental meaning  search for usefulness/utility • path to salvation  path to human physical improvement

26. New Science and Religion • Faith in a Rational God • Three major issues: • Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture. • Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers? • New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one.

27. Economics • Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use

28. Continuing Superstition

29. The Hammer of the Witches • The Hammer of the Witches, The Malleus Maleficarum, written byJacob Sprenger and Heinreich Kramer, 1486, an important medieval treatise on the existence of and how to interrogate witches;

30. Continuing Superstition • belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. • witch-hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–1700; 80% women • Cunning Folk - village society: magic helped cope with natural disasters and disabilities • Christian clergy: practiced high magic (Eucharist, Penance, Confession, exorcism

31. Review 1. Which of the following does NOT characterize the nature of the Scientific Revolution? A. It occurred several places in Europe at the same time. B. It was not revolutionary in the normal sense of the word. C. It was a complex movement involving many persons. D. Its proponents were hostile to established Christianity E. Its proponents believed that the study of nature would shed light on the nature of the divine.

32. Review 2. Which of the following figures played a key role in the popularization of the Copernican system? A. Newton B. Bacon C. Locke D. Kepler E. Galileo

33. Review 3. Pascal believed that: A. there was a danger in following traditional religious ways. B. misery loves company. C. God’s mercy was for everyone. D. it is better to believe in God than not to believe. E. all men and women were destined for salvation.

34. Review 4. In Thomas Hobbes’s view, A. man was a person neither good nor evil. B. a self-centered beast. C. essentially God-fearing. D. perfect at birth, but devolved over time. E. not the creator of human society

35. Review 5. Most proponents of the new science sought to A. explain the natural world through the lens of Christian revelation. B. mechanical metaphors. C. metaphysical concepts. D. religious analogies. E. Aristotelian logic.

36. Review 6. Galileo believed that all aspects of nature could be described in terms of: A. virtues and vices. B. divine harmonies. C. celestial ratios. D. logical hierarchies. E. mathematical relationships.

37. Review 7. Most English natural philosophers of the seventeenth century believed that: A. religion and science were incompatible. B. all important contributions to science had been made by Englishmen. C. natural philosophy revealed deeper truths than theology. D. religion and science were mutually supportive. E. nature revealed little about the divine.

38. Review 8. Tycho Brahe’s major contribution to science was his: A. discovery of the planet Mercury. B. proof of the Copernican system. C. compilation of a large amount of astronomical data. D. discovery of the moons of Jupiter. E. support of Galileo.

39. Review 9. Bacon, Descartes, and Newton all sought to explain the universe in _______ terms. A. metaphysical B. symbolic C. mystical D. mono-causal E. mechanistic

40. Review 10. Descartes divided existing things into two categories, mind and: A. body. B. God. C. metaphor. D. modality. E. mindlessness.

41. Key and Notes 1-D, 2-E, 3-D, 4-B, 5-B, 6-E, 7-D, 8-C, 9-E,10-A Need more Review? Go to: http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_kagan_westheritage_8/11/2872/735417.cw/index.html The more testing you give yourself, the better you’ll do!!!!!!