spirit writing, shamans and mediums: contact with the extra-human world

1. spirit writing, shamans and mediums: contact with the extra-human world • Oxford vpn for Youtube

2. types of contact • most important: possession (medium) • impersonation of deceased by descendant • by deity/demon • human or object (e.g. writing object or sedan chair) • less common: spirit travel (shaman) • world of the dead • world of the unborn child (Flower Gardens, in southern China) • visitation by or encounter with extra-humans • dreams • moonblocks etc.

3. varied terminology • 巫, 覡 archaizing terminology, not necessarily shaman as defined above • 降, 下 describes the descent of a deity/demon • 附 describes possession, usually of a demon • 尸 possession (only in pre-Han texts) • 見鬼 seeer of demons (very common in zhiguaitexts) • 香頭 (N. China) • 童乩 (Fujian/Taiwan) • 鸞壇， 扶乩 • 抽籤 • 筊 • beware: • autonym or label (almost invariably the latter) • terms such as wunever sufficient evidence

4. 觀音籤 東京浅草寺 very big sticks! northeastern Guangdong 廣東

6. insufficient research • disapproval educated elite over last centuries • prohibited & persecuted after 1911, certainly 1949 • seen as typical “ethnic minority” • fieldwork highly sensitive

7. a preliminary issue • 楚辭 • 離騷 attributed to Qu Yuan 屈原 since bio by SimaQian司馬遷 • 九歌 • 招魂 • attributions more relevant as beliefs than as historical facts • shamanic songs? • 離騷 an emotional song about his fate in (political) life, no indication of spirit travel, leave alone possession (e.g. translation) • 九歌 ritual songs, neither spirit travel or possession • 招魂 precursor Daoist ritual, if anything • source of elite stereotype • “south” as shamanic (and north not!) • “south” as location Nuo exorcist ritual

8. issues • some possibilities • medium cults derided by early Daoists of Heavenly Master tradition, later also educated elite in general • on elite/prestige level accepted until early Song • shift performers, regionally differentiated, from male to female (Ioan Lewis thesis) • regional specificity • to be combined with historical change, ex. Huizhou *dangki(late Ming local history)

9. aided decisions • (how) does it work? • minimizing incertitude • delegating impossible decisions • interpreters of medium/spirit writers “messages” know local people & local situation • examples • Arthur Kleinman argument for Taiwan • Record of Miraculous Responses by the Generals 將軍靈驗記 from the Lord Guan cult

10. mediums & charismatic cults

11. charisma • Max Weber’s concept • in the eyes of the beholder, not an absolute quality: belief by followers that someone possesses extraordinary qualities • routinized charisma (when derived from office, special objects, lineage) • personal charisma (without pedigree) • outside institutionalized structures, not bound (NB there may be cultural conventions about what counts as charismatic) • charisma gives a personal hold over people, feared and rejected/persecuted by establishment

12. relevant Chinese terminology • ling 靈ability to work miracles (positive) • yin 淫 “licentiousness” & “dissolute”: quality of acting out of bounds (negative) • nao閙 “to upset”, “create havoc”: upsetting of normal orderas source power (liminal) 熱鬧 熱鬧 鬧房 李三太子(哪吒)閙天

13. territorial : charismatic • charismatic • deity helps whoever worships • personal requests & benefits • hence erratic nature of benefits • voluntary • inspired rites (shamans, mediums) • territorial • deity controls territory and worshippers with right of residence • communal representation & benefits • ascribed • formal rites (state, communal, Daoist, Buddhist)

14. liminal as source of charisma • limen=border => liminal place as border & transition (see discussion of Daoist ritual) • liminal creatures live between here and there => can mediate between worlds (good), can come to attack us (bad) • origins: • incomplete transition (hungry ghosts/demons 餓鬼) • non-humans changing form • humans attaining life beyond life (immortals) • liminal position enables charisma

15. ghosts turning charismatic deities • violent death origin of most deities • bone/grave cults • plague deities • despised by early and later Daoist ritual traditions • as manifestations of stale qi • for their mediums • for some: routinizationof charisma • deity becomes territorial (may be local, socially incomplete) • hagiography cleaned up • state support

16. Four Great Families • Four Great Families (四大門): fox 狐/胡仙, snake 柳仙(蛇), weasel黄仙(黄鼠狼), hedgehog 白仙(刺猬) • sometimes the rat 灰仙(老鼠) or others as fifth • live on margins of cultivated land • self-cultivation> ability of transforming into human shape • not to be confused with literary topos • each animal was unique member of overall type • family name same, personal name varies • often nr. + lang郎 • small shrines • irregular sightings as human/animal • could be male and female • privately worshipped for personal favours • even worshipped in yamen • charismatic power • erratic & vindicativedeities • help with insecurity/contingency of events for worshippers (仙): wealth, health, crops etc. (and its reverse!) • disapproved by state & outsiders (妖,精)=>sexual accusations • underlying part of the fox stories in 聊齋志異 • female seducers & male friends • fox from the fox cults

17. A survey of animal and other shrine deities in Jilin City (grand total: 62 small shrines, mostly for several deities at a time)

18. possession • member of the Four Great Families possess people • possessed person starts to behave and talk strangely • identified as “possessed” (by “incensers” or experienced people) • the deity communicates the issue or carries out a punishment • explanatory value • “incensers” (香頭) • initially possessed involuntarily • need to identify immortal descending into them • tutor • initiation ritual • local network of customers

19. Wutong • Wutong五通/ Wuchang五猖 • Yangzi region in particulardevelopedfrom demonic creatures, esp. “one legged mountain demon” • later seen as animal or animal transformation • deal with insecurities of life/money economy • charisma => labelled licentious 淫 • state: heavily persecuted, esp. 18th century • local outside perception: sexual accusations • we know little about shamanic practice, except that they existed and functioned more or less like the “incensers”

20. enactment Wuchang, no longer possession Wutong: modern fiction

21. dangki童乩 • esp. well-documented in Fujianese cultural zone (historically Fujian, Taiwan, SE Asia) • etymology • speculation on Austronesian roots word • jitong(!): Mandarin cultural imperialism • not necessarily young, mostly male • function • communication less clearly important • demonstrative of divine power and presence • examples: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS8kWCjNI6k • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOkNPbdZ3kA • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DEUIxrwcUk

22. regular mediums • analogous “incensers” in northern China • male and female, personal deity, any age • example: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8

23. Maoshan-revelations • early example possession • relatively well-documented in 真誥a.o. works (show pdf file?) • possession • 眾眞並未降事 • 非降楊時也 • 自此後諸真共語耳 • 右南嶽夫人言 • record • 定錄 • 喻書此。紫陽旨也。 • read passage p. 19 together

24. spirit writing

25. spirit writing • Tang origins in signs 紫姑-cult (acc. to 許地山)=> divine writing in characters • common form of revelation & communication by Song • immortals (rarely well-known deities) • poetic communication • writing thru winnowing basket, wooden pencil etc. • writers and interpreters • practitioners • originally mostly educated elite • prestige form of divine communication • example: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8

26. text production: creative force • 文昌化書 (Song: Terry Kleeman) • early Qing onwards (why so late unclear to me) • LüDongbin texts • combined with charitable movement • True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經 • Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經 • allowed creative fusion local (oral) culture & educated culture(s)

27. new religious movements • Unity Way 一貫道 • continued use spirit writing

28. shamanic travel

29. Flower Gardens • shamanic travel to Flower Gardens • world unborn child (pot flowers, red/white buds) • rituals for changing sex of future child& healing • prognostication future children • southern culture • Fujian/Taiwan • Guangdong • local cultures (Yao, Miao a.o.) • some research (Berthier; Taiwanese colleagues)

30. underworld • travels thru underworld • relationship ritualized visits by specialists unclear • to investigate deceased or ill people who are already partly in underworld • lack of ethnographical descriptions

31. dangers and fears

32. revelations • not necessarily by shamans/mediums • Hong Xiuquan洪秀全 • shamans in Chinese context rarely have visions • mediums do have revelations • potential for scenario-revelations • scenarios most commonly moral rearmament • either way: action requires further conditions to be fulfilled • non-scenario more common • Taiwanese & HK cases • provide solutions to people’s problems