The Language of Research

1. The Language of Research EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

2. Construct • Abstraction that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical data and in theory building • People differ in what they can learn and how quickly they can learn. Scientist invented a construct called intelligence • other examples are: motivation, reading readiness, anxiety, underachievement, creativity, self-concept, maturity and many more. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

3. Specification of meaning • Constructs may be defined in a way that gives general meaning or they may be defined in terms of the operation by which they will be measured or manipulated • Constitutive definition • A dictionary type of definition or formal definition • For example, inteligence may be defined as the ability to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire knowledge • Important to define so that readers know what is meant by the term and to enable other research to duplicate the research EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

4. Operational definition Helps researcher bridge the gap between theoretical and observable Two types of operational definition: measured operational definition and experimental operational definition EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

5. Measured operational definition: Details the operation by which the investigator measure the construct Example: Inteligence may be defined operationally as scores on Stanford-Binet Intel Scale Creativity may operationally refer to… So, when you define the construct in terms of how they are measured, you know precisely what it is meant by the term EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

6. Experimental Operation Definition Details the steps taken to produce certain experimental conditions Example: Frustration in the study may take the form of preventing subjects from reaching the goal EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

7. Why operationally defined the construct? To delimit a term To ensure that people understand particular way a term is used To allow researcher to proceed with investigation that might not be possible Example: In practice, the investigation of the relationship between construct creativity and the construct intelligence refers to scores on an intelligence test to scores on a measure of creativity EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

8. Variables • Characteristics by which persons or objects can be described • Characteristics that do vary and can be put on a continuum or spectrum • Characteristics that can change from time to time for given persons or objects • There are variation within the class or subjects • Must have more than one level EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

9. Example: To study the effect of reinforcement on students achievement Select 9th graders Divide into 3 groups Teachers give different reinforcement (verbal praise, monetary rewards, extra points) EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

10. Types of variables • Discrete or categorical or qualitative • Can only take on specific values • Do not vary in degree, amount, quantity but are qualitatively different • The simplest form of categorical variable: gender (male-female). • When there are two categories it is known as dichotomous EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

11. Other examples of categorical variables • Marital status • Types of occupation • Location of residence • Ethnics • Political pereference • Hair colour, • Brand of a car EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

12. Quantitative variable • Also known as continous variable • It exist in some degrees along a continuum from less to more • Numbers are assigned to indicate how much of the variable they possess • Can take on any value • IQ, Age, Height, Weigth, Interest EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

13. Religion Cleaness Hair calor Race Gender SES Curiosity Writing ability Efficiency CGPA Height Running Speed Teaching Mthods Leadership style Level of motivation Intelligence Komitment Job Satisfaction Level of Education Type oh Job School Climate Type of School Which of the folowing are categorical and quantitative EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

14. Independent Presumed cause Antecedent Variable predicted from Denoted by X The thing you think will produce a difference and thing the experimenter change somehow Treatment factors Dependent Presumed effect Consequences Variable predicted from Denoted by Y The thing that is supposed to change Thing that shoud be affected Criterion Classification of variables EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

15. Types of independent variable • Attribute: • Variable that cannot be manipulated. [gender, SES, IQ, Hair Color etc] • Also known as assigned, measured, organismic, personological, sociological, psycho-sociological, demographic EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

16. Some variables can be manipulated but are not manipulated in a particular investigation Type of curriculum Section of a course Usually subject self-select the level of the independent variable or naturally occuring Very common in ex post facto research EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

17. Active independent variable Also called experimental variable Manipulated variable Treatment variable Variable can be manipulated and are manipulated in a particular investigation Method of teaching What is manipulation? Random assigment of experimental units or subjects to levels of the independent variable EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

18. Intervening variable, extraneous, confounding or contaminating variables Things affecting dependent variable other than the independent variable Cause a threat to the validity of the study This is a major problem in any study Give example EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

19. Test wiseness affect test performance Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive acts than children not so blocked Girls who plan to pursue careers in science are more aggressive, less conforming, more independent and have a greater need for achievement than girls who do not plan such careers Under intangible reinforcement conditiond, middle-class children will learn significantly better than lower-class children EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

20. Students who have completed how to study course will make a significantly higher grade-point average than students who have never taken such a course Individual who graduate with Doctor of Education in educational administration attain better paying jobs than those who received a Doctor of Philosophy in educational administration Perceptions of the characteristics of the good or effective teacher are in part determined by the perceivers’ attitude toward education EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

21. Dependent variable • Variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect • Variable that depends on independent variable • Outcome variable • Example: • The amount of uneasiness that applicants for a position express in an interview • How anxious students are before the examination • Neatness • Openness of a classroom • Fluency in a foreign language EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

22. Research in education may study the relationship between either (a) two or more quantitative variables, (b) one categorical and one quantitative variable, or (c) two or more categorical variable EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

23. Two quantitative variables • Age and amount of interest in school • Reading achievement and mathematics achievement • Classroom humanism and student motivation • Amount of time watching television and agressiveness of behavior EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

24. One categorical and one quantitative • Method used to teach reading and reading achievement • Counselling approach and level of anxiety • Nationality and liking for school • Student gender and amount of praise given by teachers EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

25. Two categorical variables • Ethnicity and father’s occupation • Gender of teacher and subject taught • Administrative style and college major • Religious affiliation and political party membership EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

26. Constant • A fixed value within the study, that is all members of the class are identical • There is no variation • No change of characteristics • Example: EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

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28. Yang manakah independent dan yang manakah dependent? effects of instructional variables on languange ability of preschool children the validity of predictors of performance in law school computer based drill and practice in arithmatics: widening the gap between high and low achieving students learning disable children self concept sex difference in choice of college science majors Test wiseness affetct test performance Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive act thath childern who are blocked Girls who plan to pursue career in science are more aggressive than EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR