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Sociology. The study of people in groups Groups in the process of self-formation through the actions of individuals through the actions and forces of the groups themselves. The Study of People in Groups. The “Scientific” study of groups and group formation
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Sociology • The study of people in groups • Groups inthe process of self-formation • through the actions of individuals • through the actions and forces of the groups themselves
The Study of People in Groups • The “Scientific” study of • groups and • group formation • Groups, as collections of people in the process of self-definition
Scientific Study of Groups • Involves Methods of Study • Involves Theories of Study
METHODS of STUDY • Observation (obtrusive and unobtrusive) • Surveys • Experiments • Historical Comparison • Cross-Cultural Comparison • Archival Research
Suspending Judgement • A key attitude in the study of society is the research approach called cultural relativism • This is in contrast to the common approach, which views other cultures and societies from the point of view of one’s own values and beliefs-- otherwise known as ethnocentrism
Theories of Study • Functionalism (and variations) • structuralism • Social Conflict Theory • Symbolic Interactionism • Gender Theory (Feminist Theory)
Functionalism • Social groups and society are viewed like “living organisms” • groups and group processes are studied as parts of a functioning whole • aspects and behaviors of society may have obvious (manifest) functions or “hidden” (latent) functions
Functionalism: Durkheim • Emile Durkheim: French Sociologist • (1858-1917) • Considered one of the “fathers of modern sociology”
Social Conflict Theory • Society is created from the ongoing conflict between key groups • According to some theorists, these groups are the main economic “classes” of society • these are made up of those who own the main wealth of society, and those who own little but their ability to labor
Social Conflict Theory:Marx • The main theorist representing this approach is Karl Marx (1818-1883) • He saw society as being built out of the conflicting interests of the “owner class” and the “working class” • In his view, the ensuing struggle between classes would lead to a classless society
Symbolic Interactionism • “Symbols” are the basis of social life • Individuals and societies develop through people’s interaction through symbols • Individuals develop a sense of themselves as they learn to use symbols • Individuals develop a sense of themselves as they learn to see themselves the way they believe others see them
Symbolic Interactionists • Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) • George Herbert Mead (1863-1947) • Erving Goffman • “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”
Culture and Society • Material and Non-Material Culture • Culture as “Webs of Meaning” • ...As “Blueprint of/for society” • Made up, as well, of norms, values, mores and folkways • The culture of a society is passed on from one generation to the next
Culture and Society • The culture of any group is passed on from one generation to the next through ongoing, lifelong processes of socialization • A related concept is enculturation • Social members may even be resocializedin their lifetime if they do not “conform” to the values, mores, norms etc. of their group
Socialization • Socialization (enculturation) is a life-long process, that begins at birth • We are first socialized by those who are closest to us in our early months and years • This first development is called primary socialization • Later we are socialized through our wider society, and this is called secondary socialization
Groups • Sociology is the study of groups of people in process of self-definition asgroups • A group is a collection of people (but not all collections of people are groups!) • Sociology studies, among other things, how individuals impact and shape groups • Sociology studies, as well, how groups impact and shape individuals
Groups: Common Terms • aggregate • category • voluntary and involuntary groups • reference groups • peer groups • primary and secondary groups
Groups: More Terms • status • achieved • ascribed • roles • in-group • out-group
Formal Organizations • Formal organizations are usually large-scale groups that have a planned focus and a clearly defined structure • Such organizations are often referred to as bureaucracies • Max Weber studied bureaucracies as ideal organizations of complex, modern society
Bureaucracies • According to Weber, bureaucracies represented the ideal organization of large-scale, modern society • ....with such characteristics as the complex division of labor • ...with a hierarchical structure of authority • ...and a complex system of clear and predictable rules
Social Inequality • A persistent character of groups throughout the world is that of stratification • Stratification is the unequal division of societies • This division can be based on a variety of factors including:
Stratification: • Class... • Race... • Gender... • Power... • Prestige...
Class: Marx • According to Marx (and other social conflict theorists) class is the division of societies into several main groups, including: • ...those who own the productive wealth of society • ...those who own only their labor (the workers)
Class: Marx • In this theory, this was the fundamental difference between the classes of industrial society • ...and this division would eventually disappear as workers struggled for the power of the owner class
Class: Weber • According to Weber, the stratification of society was based on a broader range of factors, including • ....wealth • ....power • ....prestige • And one could have any one of these to be in a “higher” class..... (examples?)
Poverty Among the Stratified • Poverty is a persistent feature of stratification throughout the world • While many would argue about its very definition • And many would argue about its real cause(s)
Relative and Absolute Poverty • Much of poverty in the world is what could be termed “relative poverty”.... • While much of the world lives in “absolute poverty... • ...the latter being a state in which one’s very survival is threatened by the lack of resources (eg. food, clothing, medical care etc.)
Causes of Poverty • Why does poverty persist in the world? • Functionalist view.... • Social-conflict theory... • Social-interactionist theory... • Gender/Feminist theory...
Other Divisions: Race and Ethnicity • Race and ethnicity are also dividing factors in our society (and our wider world) • Race is the social definition of people based one biological characteristics • Ethnicity is the social definition of people based on cultural ties (like language, dress, customs, beliefs, etc.)
Race: Key Terms • Prejudice • Discrimination • Racism • Social definition of Race • Institutional Racism • Minority Status
Race: More Key Terms • Genocide (“ethnic cleansing”) • Expulsion • Segregation (apartheid) • Assimilation • Amalgamation • Cultural pluralism
Other Divisions: Gender • Sex: biological characteristics • xy/xx, hormones, primary and secondary sex characteristics • Gender: the social definition of groups based on biological characteristics.... • (sound familiar? see the variation of this theme under “race”)
Gender: Nature vs. Nurture • How much of what we are as “masculine” and “feminine” is • .....learned through socialization... • .....or “built-in” to us through our genes, hormones and brain-structure?
Gender: biological destiny? • How much of the stratification of our society along gendered lines is “natural”--based on our biological make-up.... • ....and how much is the result of social definition of opportunities etc. based on biological makeup....?
Gender: biological destiny? • the “glass ceiling”... • female job-ghettos • the “feminization of poverty” • Are these “natural divisions” of the world?
Social Institutions • Society is in process of self-definition... • As social practices of groups become familiar, accepted and expected they become what sociology calls institutions • This refers to organized practices and relationships of society, rather than to physical places...
Social Institutions Include... • ...family • ...religion • ...economics and politics • ...education
Family: The way we never were... • The sociological study of family: • historical comparison... • Kodachrome...”the good-old days”... • cross-cultural comparison... • “family values” around the world... • family today: the “ideal” vs. “the real”
Religion= Primitive Science? • The “enlightened view” of “religion”... • “science” replacing “religion” • the emergence of “rational” explanation of the world • Classifying the world’s cultures : from “savagery” to “civilization”? • Sociologists get involved..... • Durkheim et. al
Religion vs. Science? • Is there necessarily any conflict between religion and science? • examples of conflict in history.... • the earth is the center of the universe • there is no such thing as a vacuum • “God” created “man” on the 7th day... not through “evolution”....
Religion vs. Science? • Why did such scientific assertions challenge religion? • Do they necessarily undermine, or contradict religious beliefs and tradtitions? • Today, does the sociological study of religion necessarily mean the rejection of religion?
Sociology and Religion:Which theory would say... • “Religion dulls people to the reality of class conflict...” • “Religion should be studied for the things it does for the cohesion of society...” • “Religion should also be studied for its gendered character in history and contemporary society...”
Deviance and Social Control • Remember... “Sociology is the study of.....” • Groups in “self-definition” set boundaries... • who belongs • who does not • This is done by the way people talk, dress, behave etc.
Deviance and Social Control • “Deviance” is relative to values of the wider society.... How is this so? • or.... if a “deviant” fell in the woods, and nobody was around to hear this.... • “Deviant” behavior and beliefs often find their way, eventually, into “mainstream” society: • or... underwear as outerwear....
Deviance and Social Control • “Deviant behavior” today may also have been accepted social practice in the past... • spare the rod and avoid the DCYF • no smoking! you @#@!@!##@ • opium under the Pastor’s porch...
Which theory would.... • ...See “deviance” as the definition of the powerful in a society? • ...See “deviance” as learned through processes of seeing oneself in relation to others and their expectations? • ...See “deviance” as having some “positive” functions in society, as well as being a sign of the malfunction or dysfunction of society?
A Rap on Deviance • The “latent” and “manifest” functions of “parental advisory”stickers • But isn’t Rap just “missing a C”? • Rap... In context of history.... • A conflict of power in history and contemporary society?
