The Development of the Motivation to Succeed

1. The Development of the Motivation to Succeed Becca Laptook Stony Brook University December 2004

2. Presentation Overview • Definition of the general construct • Brief overview of historical theories • Contemporary views • Definition of specific topic of interest: Intrinsic Motivation • Overview of a specific intrinsic motivation theory • Development and mechanisms of intrinsic motivation

3. Definition • Motivation – contains the Latin root meaning “to move” • Motivational psychologists study what moves people to act and why they do what they do

4. Why Study this Topic? • This presentation focuses on the motivation to succeed, particularly in the area of academic achievement • Why study it? • To gain a better understanding of causes of human behavior • To gain a better understanding of how the social environment can be influenced to affect people’s development and performance in the most optimal way

5. Brief History of the Field • Early grand theories • Psychoanalytic Theory • Lewin’s Field Theory • Behavioral Theory • Early specific motivational theories • Rotter’s Social Learning Theory • White’s Notion of Competence Motivation • Atkinson’s Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation

6. Early Grand Theories – Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud (1934) had one of the first grand theories of motivation • He proposed that instincts were the main forces behind behavior: • Instinct/needs arise from the id and create tension • People engage in behaviors that will release this tension and restore the self to a balanced condition • The ego steps in if the id attempts to satisfy the need in an unacceptable way • Freud’s ideas are not central to current motivation theories; however, his most lasting contribution is his emphasis on unconscious motivation

7. Early Grand Theories – Lewin’s Field Theory • Lewin’s (1938) theory is based on Gestaltist notions and the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment [B = f ( P, E)] • Life space = a person’s psychological reality that contains different regions of the person and his perceptions of the environment • Motivation occurs because regions associated with particular needs/goals are in tension until the goals are achieved. • Valence or relative attractiveness influence the level of tension and thus the level of motivation to eliminate the tension • Lewin’s notions of B=f(P,E) and of valence and potency are important to current expectancy-based motivation theories

8. Early Grand Theories – Behavioral Theory • Classic behavioral theory focused on primary and learned secondary drives, which motivated behavior to satisfy a need • ex: Hull, 1943 • Other behavior theorists focus on how consequences affect behavior • ex: Skinner (1974) studied the effect of reinforcement on behavior • Behavior is assumed to be controlled by its consequences • Current motivation theorists go a step further and add the notion that a person’s interpretation of behavioral consequences influences motivation

9. Early Specific Theories – Rotter’s Social Learning Theory (1966) • Rotter emphasized expectation and value of rewards as well as mental representations of experience as central to motivated behavior • Locus of control – stable individual difference in the tendency to view events as being under personal (internal) or environmental (external) locus of control • These ideas are key to many current theories of motivation

10. Early Specific Theories – White’s Notion of Competence Motivation • White (1959) argued that animal’s attempts to master their environment could not be completely explained by drive or instinct-based motivational theories • Effectance motivation = goals are to acquire competence and influence one’s environment (ex: exploration) • He also introduced into the literature on motivation cognitive constructs, such as goals and planning

11. Early Specific Theories – Atkinson’s Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation • Atkinson (1964, 1966) developed the 1st formal model of motivation that aimed to explain striving for success and other achievement-related behaviors • Achievement behaviors are determined by achievement motives, expectancies for success, and incentive values • Motivation to achieve:  Mach = (Mas x Ps x Is) – (Maf x Pf x If)

12. Current Theoretical Perspectives

13. Differences between Past and Current Theories of Motivation • Current perspectives do not focus extensively on drives or instincts or exclusively on the idea of unconscious motivation • Modern achievement theories focus on beliefs and cognitions and emphasize interpretational processes • Current theories are becoming increasingly aware of contextual influences

14. Three Motivational Questions • Current theories address 3 broad motivational questions: 1) Can I do this task? 2) Do I want to do this task and why? 3) What do I have to do to succeed on this task? • This presentation will focus solely on Question #2 as it pertains most directly to the idea of intrinsic motivation

15. Intrinsic Motivation

16. Definitions • Intrinsic Motivation = “the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s capacities, to explore, and to learn” (Ryan & Deci, 2000) • Intrinsically motivated people do activities for their own sake and out of interest in the activity itself • Extrinsic Motivation = when individuals do activities for external reasons, such as receiving a reward or avoiding a punishment

17. Differences between Intrinsically and Extrinsically Motivated People • Deci & Ryan (2000) report that individuals who are intrinsically motivated are more interested, confident, and excited, which, in turn, leads to enhanced performance, persistence, self-esteem, and general well-being • Children with higher academic intrinsic motivation have been shown to have higher achievement, higher perceptions of academic competence, and lower academic anxiety (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001)

18. Theory of Intrinsic Motivation Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

19. Theory of Intrinsic Motivation– Self-Determination Theory • Deci and Ryan (1985) propose that people seek out optimal stimulation because of their basic need for competence • Also, individuals’ feelings of competence and that their behavior is self-determined is what maintains intrinsic motivation • Internalization = the process of transferring the regulation of behavior from outside to inside the individual • People internalize external goals using this process because of a basic need for interpersonal relatedness

20. Development of Intrinsic Motivation • A substantial amount of academic intrinsic motivation develops by age 9 • As they develop, kids remain relatively stable regarding their levels of intrinsic motivation compared to their peers • This rank-order stability increases significantly during adolescence • In general, everyone experiences a decrease in their level of academic intrinsic motivation across most school subject areas

21. How Does Intrinsic Motivation Develop? • Intrinsic motivation may be seen as an innate propensity • Young children are generally naturally active, curious, and inquisitive, even without specific rewards • Ryan and Deci’s theory suggests that most people have intrinsic motivation, but they require the proper conditions to sustain or enhance it

22. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) • CET is a sub theory of Deci & Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT) • Aim of CET  to explore social and environmental factors that both positively and negatively influence intrinsic motivation • CET focuses on the fundamental needs for competence and autonomy (i.e. self-determined behavior)

23. CET Continued • Proposals of the theory: (1) Intrinsic motivation for an activity is increased by social-contextual events and is mediated by perceived competence (2) Perceptions of competence will only increase intrinsic motivation if there is also a sense of autonomy (i.e. internal locus of control)

24. CET Continued • What may facilitate intrinsic motivation: • Positive reinforcement such as positive performance feedback • Praise (Henderlong & Lepper, 2002) • Choice / opportunities for self-direction • Mastery goals • What may undermine intrinsic motivation: • Extrinsic tangible rewards • Deadlines • Threats • Imposed goals • Performance goals

25. CET Continued • In addition to autonomy and competence, relatedness may play a role in the facilitation of intrinsic motivation • Babies who have a secure base tend to exhibit more exploratory behavior • A similar context of security and relatedness in interpersonal situations throughout one’s life is thought to enhance intrinsic motivation • Relatedness does not appear to be necessary for intrinsic motivation to occur, but it does appear to play a role at times

26. Summary • What develops? • Implications for the role of parents and teachers • Implications for when to intervene • The earlier the better • Clinical implications • Motivational Interviewing • Future research • Bridging research on temperament and intrinsic motivation

27. Suggested Readings • Boggiano, A.K., Main, D.S., & Katz, P.A. (1988) Children’s preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 134-141. • Cordova, D.I., & Lepper, M.R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 715-730. • Elliot, A.J., & Harackiewicz, J.M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 461-475. • Gottfried, A.E., Fleming, J.S., & Gottfried, A.W. (1994). Role of parental motivational practices in children’s academic intrinsic motivation and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 104-113. • Gottfried, A.E., Fleming, J.S., & Gottfried, A.W. (2001). Continuity of academic intrinsic motivation from childhood through late adolescence: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 3-13. • Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.

28. Reviewers • Stephanie Sohl • Heather Foran