Chapter 9 - The Development of Academic Motivation

1. Chapter 9 - The Development of Academic Motivation Tom Sturm Pam Aguilar Nicki Robl

2. Personal Interest in Motivation • As Secondary School teachers we are interested in motivation because of the dip that occurs in the early teenage years. • Literacy scores drop, students begin to draw back from their interest and motivation in education. • This is a difficult and necessary time where valuable skills are learned.

3. Why does academic motivation decline with increasing grade in school? Two Reasons: As students progress through the elementary years their responses and thinking about reinforcements and punishments change. In addition, reinforcement possibilities change as children mature. Pressley & McCormick, 262

4. Self efficacy is the feeling a student has about his/her learning abilities. Self-efficacy is one of the best predicators of a student’s academic success. So how do we promote or influence self-confidence in students? Pressley & McCormick, 262

5. Influences of Self-Efficacy Social models - students in a peer group have similar attitudes of abilities, thus tend to emulate their peers. Opinion of others – the opinion of your peer group has a high influence on your self-efficacy Feedback – in response to one’s own effort has greater affect on self-efficacy than teacher or peer “big fish little pond syndrome” – students are more likely to have lower self-efficacy when they are in ability level grouping Pressley & McCormick, 263

6. Development of Self-Efficacy Beliefs By the middle and upper elementary grades students become more aware of their failures and successes Once a student begins to believe in their own abilities or lack of abilities it is difficult to change their perception of themselves as learners Outcomes: the apathy in higher grade levels has been developing over a number of years Pressley & McCormick, 264

7. Matching Academic Tasks to Student Competencies • Remember Vygotsky’s theory about the zone of proximal development? • If a student finds a task too difficult they will become frustrated and likely give up • But if teachers scaffold academic tasks appropriately students will more likely succeed • Build on students’ knowledge to construct learning goals Pressley & McCormick, 264

8. Self-Efficacy and Expectancy-Value Theory Expectancy –value theory predicts students’ performance relative to potential What does that mean? Students are more likely to take on learning when they expect to perform well. Critical assumption: “students both expect and value academic success.” Pressley & McCormick, 265

9. Attributions of Success and Failure • Students often rationalize their success or failures. Their explanations are called attributions. • Efforts: I studied all night for the exam or I hardly studied for the exam • Abilities: I suck at math therefore, I bombed the test • Task Factors: the test was easy so I passed • Luck: I got lucky on the test so I passed! Pressley & McCormick, 266

10. Attributions, Learning Difficulties, and Learning Disabilities • So how does attribution affect students with learning disabilities/difficulties? • Normally achieving students were more likely to believe that with effort they would be able to succeed in school. Students with learning disabilities/difficulties are more likely to attribute their lack of success in school to their perceived low ability? If students with learning difficulties or disabilities believe that their learning is tied to effort they are more likely to do well in school. Learned helplessness is the feeling that one cannot improve one’s performance Pressley & McCormick, 266-267

11. Turn-Talk So how can teachers promote high self-efficacy in students with learning disabilities/difficulties?

12. Attribution, Learning Difficulties, and Learning Disabilities Build on previous knowledge Carefully scaffold skills Warning: be careful not to coddle students too much because they may associate their academic success with your help rather than their own learning ability Pressley & McCormick, 266

13. So think about it………….. “Next time you are tempted to praise your students’ intelligence or talent, restrain yourself. Instead teach them how much fun a challenging task is, how interesting and informative errors are, and how great it is to struggle with something and make progress. Most of all teach them that by taking on challenges, making mistakes, and putting forth effort, they are making themselves smarter” (Dweck, 2008).

14. Developmental Differences in Attributions “How do children’s attributions explain the increasing tendency with advancing grade in school not to like things academic.” “Why is it that with increasing age during the elementary and middle school years, feelings of learning helplessness in response to failures increases?” Pressley & McCormick, 267

15. Attribution Retraining • Attribution Retraining is aimed at teaching students that their failure may be due to method they used to approach the problem, not a reflection of their academic abilities. • Students are taught to see value in the strategies they learn, to see them as tools that can help improve their performance. • Learning becomes less punitive, more of a development. • Student begin to see that they can succeed, but in order to do so they just need the right skills. (Self-efficacy)

16. Developmental Differences in Attributions When students are younger they think effort and ability are equal. As students mature and become more self-aware they begin to differentiate between effort and ability. So as students advance in grades they begin to attribute academic failures with low ability Here’s where learned helplessness comes into play. Students see that academic achievement is tied to ability, thus they don’t try as a means to rationalize their learning outcomes. Pressley & McCormick, 267

17. Classroom Competition So is classroom competition good for nurturing self-efficacy? Why or why not? Short answer: NO! Encouraging classroom competition fosters ego involvement. Undermines student achievement because students interpret success with high ability and failure with low ability Students will avoid trying if they think the outcome is failure As students mature they become more aware of the implications of competing (success or failure) Pressley & McCormick, 268

18. Alternative to Competition Emphasize doing better than previously instead of doing better than other students Try to foster a task oriented classroom vs. a ego –involved classroom Task involved classroom, promote the process of learning instead of outcomes of learning (e.g. grades/awards). Demonstrate learning outcomes in a variety of ways. Pressley & McCormick 271

19. Other Characteristics of Classrooms that Undermine Achievement Secondary schools are physically larger than elementary schools and therefore more imposing Middle and high school teachers are firmer and less flexible Difficult to form relationships with secondary teachers because secondary teachers have so many more students Pressley & McCormick, 271

20. Views of Intelligence • A student’s view of his/her own intelligence is a determining factor in their motivation to learn. • Entity theory of intelligence is the belief that intelligence is fixed. For example, either you’re born smart or born dumb. Students who hold this belief are more likely to have negative feelings when they fail. • Incremental theory of intelligence is a belief that intelligence is malleable. Students who hold this belief are more likely to associate achievement with effort and continue to try even despite failures. Pressley & McCormick, 273

21. Section 2: Promoting Motivation in School

22. Promoting Motivation in Schools • As teachers, it is important to set up a classroom in which a student can feel motivated to learn. • In order to feel motivated, a learner must feel a sense of self-efficacy over their education. • To feel motivated to learn students must: • Think a task is worth accomplishing. • Feel capable of succeeding. • Sense that there is something gained by accomplishing the task. (Berliner & Casanova, 107 )

23. Keys to Promoting Motivation in School • Through purposeful planning, these needs can be addressed through: • Cooperative Learning • Attribution Retraining • Utilizing Student Interests • Conceptualizing Your Possible Self

24. Cooperative Learning • In cooperative learning situations students work together to work towards a common goal. • In this type of learning setting, everyone is held accountable to the learning. They are responsible for their own and other’s success. • The sense of not wanting to let their group down gives a sense of purpose to their learning.

25. Characteristics of Cooperative Learning • Positive Interdependence • The group will succeed or fail together • Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction • Students help each other learn and encourage each member to succeed. • Students are more likely to share in the small group setting. • Individual and Group Accountability • Everyone has to contribute in order for the group to reach its goals. • Group Processing • The group has to reflect upon how well they are functioning, and what they can do to become better. (Marzano & Pickertin & Pollack, 85-86)

26. Benefits of Cooperative Learning • Cooperative Learning: • Promotes better learning and more motivated learners than individual based or competitive based settings. • Individual-The individual's learning has no effect on others. • Competitive-The learner attempts to beat others. • Increases learning regardless of demographics. • People learn from each other and benefit from other’s ideas and perspectives. • Produces Positive Social Effects Including: • Increased self-esteem • Fosters positive feelings towards school • Develops acceptance of others • Promotes the development of interpersonal skills (Pressley & McCormick, 275-276)

27. Creating Cooperative Learning Groups • Groups should not be homogenous based upon their ability levels. • High-Ability with Medium-Ability, Medium-Ability with Low-Ability • Addresses Zone of Proximal Development • Groups should be small in size (3-4 students) to ensure everyone participates. • Use group rewards and individual accountability to give incentive to work together. • Try to keep groups gender/ethnically balanced. • Monitor group interactions to ensure all students have an opportunity to learn. (Marzano & Pickering & Pollack,87-88 )

28. Nurturing the Possible Self • Possible Self is a simple method of showing that students have some control over their futures. • It is a valuable tool in putting a value on one’s education. • “What am I going to be in 10 years?” • This is a question that helps students to begin to form an idea of what their goals and expectations for themselves are. • Having attainable dreams can be a great motivator for students. (Pressley & McCormick, 282 )

29. Nurturing the Possible Self • “How will I get there?” • Possible Selves help students to put their learning into a specific context as they ask themselves, “How is this going to help me reach my goal?” • This helps the students see that they can control their future with the effort that they put into what they do. • Students will begin to see the value of putting in effort now for dividends in their future.

30. The Interest Effect • In The Child and the Curriculum, John Dewey stated that “the lack of any organic connection with what the child as already seen and felt and loved makes the material purely formal and symbolic” • Students need to feel a connection to what they learn in school so they can truly form an understanding. • To do so, we should access students’ prior knowledge to provide a context for the material, and to spark an interest based upon what they already know. • Students pay closer to and learn better when they identify something as interesting. • This increase in learning is not just tied to the attention and effort being displayed. (Dewey, 31)

31. Implications for Teachers • We need to help develop connections between the content and our students. • This can be done through: • Offer meaningful choices to the students. • Choose books, Project Ideas, Areas of Study • Be selective in the texts used in class. • Look for good texts that will appeal to the students interests • Utilize the students’ prior knowledge in our teaching. • Set the stage, KWL, Assess Interests • Encourage students to become active learners. • Ask questions, pursue interests, Socratic Seminars. (Pressley & McCormick, 284 )

32. Role of the Teacher in Increasing Motivation • Support your Students! • Show that you believe they can accomplish each task. • Help students feel they are in control of their achievement. • When students feel control, they feel a personal connection to completing it, instead of just being forced to do it for someone else. • Keep each task within the Zone of Proximal Development. • Teachers send message that the student must self regulate in order to meet their goals. • Student is put in control of their ability to succeed. (Pressley & McCormick, 283)

33. Conclusions • Through the way that we set up our classroom, we can empower students to take control of their learning. • Cooperative Learning groups foster accountability to the self and group. • Attribution Retraining teaches students that they can succeed if they develop the right strategies to use. • Thinking about the possible self allows the student to identify their goals and realize that they have the power to achieve them.

34. Section3:Contextual Determination of Academic Motivation

35. Bronfenbrenner Ecological systems theory-Development is a result of interaction between and among environments. Children impact environment as much as environment impacts them. www.news.cornell.edu/.../Bronfenbrenner.ssl.html Pressley & McCormick, 284-285

36. Motivation towards schooling is determined by what happens outside of school as well as inside Microsystem: children’s proximal environment (community, school, church, immediate family) Macrosystem: children’s more distant environmental factors (culture) gozips.uakron.edu/~susan8/devparch/theorists.htm

37. Mircosystem:Family Matters! • Parents who are- • Accepting • Provide adequate supervision • Grant autonomy when appropriate • Involved in school • Effective disciplinarians • Married • Mentally healthy Will have more academically motivated children and can even influence their children’s friends to be more academically motivated. Pressley & McCormick, 286

38. Microsystem:Friends Matter! • Children who have better peer relations are more likely to be motivated in school. • With increasing age peers have increasing effects on motivation Pressley & McCormick, 286

39. Microsystem:School Matters! • Schools that provide • Strong administrative leadership • High expectations • Safe but not rigid environment • Shared sense of purpose (by students, staff and parents) • Fair Discipline • Community and parental involvement • Teachers that care • Recognition of accomplishments (by teachers and students) • Strong leadership that solves problems(Teachers and administrators feel they control and solve problems) Are likely to be highly motivating for students Pressley & McCormick, 287

40. Macrosystem • Affects motivation by directly affecting elements of children’s microsystem. • Can have positive or negative effects on motiviation. • Examples • Culture • Japanese students equate success with effort and thus families support effort in school • Costa Rican culture holds teachers in high regard and thus families support teachers and school more causing increased motivation • Economy • Parental levels of employment • High school students after school jobs • Parental happiness/level of stimulation • Time spent by parents at their job Pressley & McCormick, 288

41. Beyond Social Theory Biology can play a role in motivation • Childhood illness • Early maturation Can have negative effects on academic motivation Pressley & McCormick, 289

42. Finally, the individual A child’s personality can have effects on whether or not they are academically motivated when combined with outside influences. Pressley & McCormick, 289

43. What should teachers do? • Be aware of cultural contexts that influence motivation • Work to create motivating school environment (see slide 6 or “Considering Interesting Questions” box 9.5,Pressley & McCormick, 289) • Encourage positive peer interactions

44. Last Words “We need to correct the harmful idea that people simply have gifts that transport them to success, and to teach our students that no matter how smart or talented someone is--be it Einstein, Mozart, or Michael Jordan--no one succeeds in a big way without enormous amounts of dedication and effort. It is through effort that people build their abilities and realize their potential. More and more research is showing there is one thing that sets great successes apart from their equally talented peers--how hard they’ve worked. (Ericsson, et al., 2006, as cited in Dweck, 2008).

45. Work Cited Berliner, David C. & Casanova, Ursula (1993). Putting Research to Work In Your School. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc. Dewey, John (1902). The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Dweck, C. (2008). Brainology: Transforming students’ motivation to learn. Independent School, 67(2), 110-119. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from the HW Wilson/Education Full text database. Marzano, Robert J. & Pickering, Debra J. & Pollock, Jane E (2001). Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. McCormick, Chrstine B & Pressley, Michael (2007). Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. National Association of Independent Schools. (2008). You can grow your intelligence: new research shows the brain can be developed like a muscle. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from http://www.independentschools.org.