Observational Research

1. 1 Observational Research

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3. 3 Phases of Research Idea generation Defining the Problem Design the Procedures Observe/Collect Data Data-Analysis Interpret the data Communicate the findings Similar to scientific methodSimilar to scientific method

4. 4 The Basics of Research Design Psychological research is about answering questions But where do the questions come from? Established Theories Past Research Scientific Hunches

5. 5 The Basics Continued Variable A characteristic that changes or has different values for different individuals What are some variables in this room? Student height Individual anxiety level Room temperature

6. 6 Two Types of Variables Independent Variable (IV) Variable that is changed or manipulated Dependent Variable (DV) Variable that is used to measure the change or affect of the IV Example: Fertilizers and Corn Crops What is the IV? What would be the DV(s)? Example: Say we have three different fields of corn and we treat each with a different type of fertilizer -- one with no fertilizer, one with miracle grow, and one with manure Example: Say we have three different fields of corn and we treat each with a different type of fertilizer -- one with no fertilizer, one with miracle grow, and one with manure

7. 7 Hypothesis Makes a prediction about how the manipulation of the IV will affect the DV OR� Makes a prediction about the relationship between two variables i.e, Correlational studies �Fertilizer and corn� hypotheses? What are some potential hypotheses in the �fertilizer and corn� example?What are some potential hypotheses in the �fertilizer and corn� example?

8. 8 Scientific Writing and Reporting APA Style: What is it? APA style refers to rules and guidelines for publishing psychological research Types of articles: Review articles (summarize and/or critique past research) Case studies (author�s description of case material about a specific individual or organization) Empirical studies (reports of original research)

9. 9 APA Style Four Main Sections: Introduction (Literature Review) Methodology Results Discussion (Conclusion)

10. 10 Pennebaker Article Discussion

11. 11 Pennebaker Article Discussion What were the different sections of this article? Which phase(s) of research were addressed by which section(s)? How does the author catch the readers interest in the introduction? What was the purpose of this study? Where do we find it? Which theory leads to the research question addressed in this study? What is the IV? The DV? Purpose: Do girls get prettier near closing time - due to availability and time crunch - increasing attractiveness with less time availability Theory: Reactance theory IV: Time DV: Attractiveness ratedPurpose: Do girls get prettier near closing time - due to availability and time crunch - increasing attractiveness with less time availability Theory: Reactance theory IV: Time DV: Attractiveness rated

12. 12 An Overview of Research Designs Naturalistic Observation Observation only, no interaction Ex) Studying animal behavior Case-Study In-depth study of 1 easily available instance (e.g., Piaget�s records of his children) Correlational Research Explores the relationships between variables Causality? Have students provide examples of each type of research designHave students provide examples of each type of research design

13. 13 An Overview of Research Designs Differential Research Using Pre-existing variables (i.e., Gender) to define groups Experimental Research Assignment to conditions Manipulation of variables to establish causality Independent Variable with multiple levels Ex) Cell Phones and Driving Research Students provide examples for eachStudents provide examples for each

14. 14 OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

15. 15 Observational Research Scientific observation is made under precisely defined conditions, in a systematic and objective manner, and with careful record keeping. Scientific Observation is used by anthropologists, sociologists, and ethology (the study of organisms in their natural environment). The primary goal of this type of research is to describe behavior fully and as accurately as possible The samples selected by observers must be representative of the greater population Observations must also be made across different settings and times for generalizability and external valididty (ex. Some children change their behavior from the morning to the afternoon, or in front of their parents or with their friends) Scientific Observation is used by anthropologists, sociologists, and ethology (the study of organisms in their natural environment). The primary goal of this type of research is to describe behavior fully and as accurately as possible The samples selected by observers must be representative of the greater population Observations must also be made across different settings and times for generalizability and external valididty (ex. Some children change their behavior from the morning to the afternoon, or in front of their parents or with their friends)

16. 16 Observation classification Without intervention: �naturalistic observation� Observer = passive recorder Natural setting: A place where behavior would occur normally With Intervention: �tampering� Participant observation Structured observation Field Study WITH INTERVENTION: Intervening to observe the effects of the intervention Participant observation: researcher observes peoples behavior and actual participate in the situation they are observing Two Types: Undisguised: The people know the researcher is collecting data Disguised: Participants don�t know they are being observed to limit the effect of the observer Structured Observation: Usually used in clinical (behavioral assessments) or developmental (Piaget giving problems to children to solve) treatment. Researchers intervene to try and control some of the events they are observing (ex. Change blindness pg 115) Field Study: Observer manipulates one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect (more often in social psych) Ex) Posing as robbers to see how people react as a bystander to a crime or researchers cutting in line to study the reactions of those in line WITHOUT INTERVENTION: Example is naturalistic observation Psychology lab is not a natural setting since the setting has been arranged specifically for the purpose of observing behavior, more of an artificial setting Another example: Observing behavior in an internet chat room or group WITH INTERVENTION: Intervening to observe the effects of the intervention Participant observation: researcher observes peoples behavior and actual participate in the situation they are observing Two Types: Undisguised: The people know the researcher is collecting data Disguised: Participants don�t know they are being observed to limit the effect of the observer Structured Observation: Usually used in clinical (behavioral assessments) or developmental (Piaget giving problems to children to solve) treatment. Researchers intervene to try and control some of the events they are observing (ex. Change blindness pg 115) Field Study: Observer manipulates one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect (more often in social psych) Ex) Posing as robbers to see how people react as a bystander to a crime or researchers cutting in line to study the reactions of those in line WITHOUT INTERVENTION: Example is naturalistic observation Psychology lab is not a natural setting since the setting has been arranged specifically for the purpose of observing behavior, more of an artificial setting Another example: Observing behavior in an internet chat room or group

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19. 19 What are the pros and cons to each? Observation without intervention? Observation with intervention? WITHOUT INTERVENTION PROS:Natural behavior. No worries about any kind of experimental effects impacting behavior. Externally valid CONS:Hard to draw hypotheses or specific conclusions WITH INTERVENTION PROS: Manipulation variables, changing the scenario so you can determine the effect and draw inferences CONS: Experimenter effects on behavior, sometimes it is dangerous to manipulate behavior in a natural setting (I.e., setting up a robbery to measure peoples reactions)WITHOUT INTERVENTION PROS:Natural behavior. No worries about any kind of experimental effects impacting behavior. Externally valid CONS:Hard to draw hypotheses or specific conclusions WITH INTERVENTION PROS: Manipulation variables, changing the scenario so you can determine the effect and draw inferences CONS: Experimenter effects on behavior, sometimes it is dangerous to manipulate behavior in a natural setting (I.e., setting up a robbery to measure peoples reactions)

20. 20 What are some examples of observational research? Simons and Levin (1998) studying Change Blindness http://viscog.beckman.uiuc.edu/grafs/demos/12.html Messer and Gross (1995) studying family interactions of children diagnosed with depression Messer, S.C., and A.M. Gross (1995) Childhood depression and family interaction: a naturalistic observation study. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24, Change blindness pg 115 Change blindness-people fail to notice changes in their environment They ha confederates (explain this term) approach a pedestrian and ask for directions. Once in the conversation a door was carried between the two talking and the confederate was switched out who was originally talking to the pedestrian. They measured if people noticed the switch., about half did not notice. The confederates were very similar looking. Messer and Gross (naturalistic observation) Had a control group of nondepressed children and experimental group of depressed children whom they observed. Family interactions with the children were observed and recorded. They found that family environments of depressed children were less rewarding, more aversive, and disengaged than their control childrenChange blindness pg 115 Change blindness-people fail to notice changes in their environment They ha confederates (explain this term) approach a pedestrian and ask for directions. Once in the conversation a door was carried between the two talking and the confederate was switched out who was originally talking to the pedestrian. They measured if people noticed the switch., about half did not notice. The confederates were very similar looking. Messer and Gross (naturalistic observation) Had a control group of nondepressed children and experimental group of depressed children whom they observed. Family interactions with the children were observed and recorded. They found that family environments of depressed children were less rewarding, more aversive, and disengaged than their control children

21. 21 What are other ideas for observational research?

22. 22 How do we measure and record observed behavior? Operational definitions: WHAT concept are you studying, HOW are you going to measure it. Ex.: If intelligence is the concept we want to measure, we may use any number of things to measure it. Ways to record behavior: Qualitative Written descriptions, audio tapes, video tapes Quantitative Frequency of the behavior, measuring the duration of the behavior First we must define and operationalize the behavior so that we know what and how we will be recording it First we must define and operationalize the behavior so that we know what and how we will be recording it

23. 23 Observer Reliability Inter-observer reliability: the degree to which 2 independent observers agree How do we ensure inter-observer reliability? Clear definitions (behaviors/events) Training observers Feedback about discrepancies Reliability: Number of times 2 observers agree Number of opportunities to agree Clear definitions about the behavior and events to be recorded allows observers to be reliable Training and practice in making observations also helps reliability If they make an error, feedback helps so they know why their observation is wrong or misguided and they can hone in on the actual behavior to observe Clear definitions about the behavior and events to be recorded allows observers to be reliable Training and practice in making observations also helps reliability If they make an error, feedback helps so they know why their observation is wrong or misguided and they can hone in on the actual behavior to observe

24. 24 So Observers 1 and 2 agreed 8 times (They agreed that someone did not return the disk) They had the opportunity to agree 10 times So the inter-rater reliability is 80%So Observers 1 and 2 agreed 8 times (They agreed that someone did not return the disk) They had the opportunity to agree 10 times So the inter-rater reliability is 80%

25. 25 Descriptive Statistics Statistics that describe the data Measures of Central Tendency Frequencies Tables/Charts/Graphs Central Tendency: Mean, median, and mode Frequencies: The number of participants who fall into each category Example) In this class there are __ males and __ females�.then we can put it into a chart Draw examples on the boardCentral Tendency: Mean, median, and mode Frequencies: The number of participants who fall into each category Example) In this class there are __ males and __ females�.then we can put it into a chart Draw examples on the board

26. 26 Measures of central tendency MODE � the number that occurs the most e.g., 1, 6, 8, 7, 6, 2, 9, 1, 6 Mode = 6 MEDIAN � The number that represents the 50th percentile (the middle number or an average of the 2 middle numbers) e.g., 1, 3, 7, 8, 14, 35, 99, Median = 8 e.g., 1, 3, 6, 8, 55, 75 Median = ? MEAN � what we think of as �average� ?(X)/N e.g., 1, 5, 7, 3 �..thus (1+5+7+3)/4 mean = 4 e.g., 2, 7, 5, 66 mean = ? Median = 7 Mean = 20Median = 7 Mean = 20

27. 27 Example: Observation w/ intervention�Helping Behavior� A group of researchers decide to measure helping behavior on college campuses. They have either a male or a female confederate walk out of the Johnson Center in front of one or more students. The confederate then �accidentally� drops a brightly colored computer disk onto the brick walk. Three observers record how many times another student exhibits helping behavior toward the confederate. Operational definition of helping behavior Point out to the confederate that (s)he has dropped the disk (Informatively Helpful) Pick up the disk and return it to the confederate (Actively Helpful)

28. 28 Example: Observation Recording Sheet

29. 29 Frequencies Table Example Describing our data: We made a total of 10 observations. Our sample was 50% male and 50% female. Males returned the disk 40% of the time, while females returned the disk only 20% of the time. Men tended to help out more than women. If they want to do means: Mean number of returned disks, pointed out disks, etc. for the entire sample across times or settings. Describing our data: We made a total of 10 observations. Our sample was 50% male and 50% female. Males returned the disk 40% of the time, while females returned the disk only 20% of the time. Men tended to help out more than women. If they want to do means: Mean number of returned disks, pointed out disks, etc. for the entire sample across times or settings.

30. 30 Central Tendency Example:

31. 31 Creating a Table APA Style Refer to Dunn, 2004 pg 152 Table 8.1 for formatting Items to remember: Title for your table (brief but understandable) Label your columns and rows meaningfully Those silly lines within the table that APA uses Double check your table values for accuracy

32. 32 Now, It�s YOUR Turn! In-class assignment: get into groups of 3-4 and complete proposed study design worksheet (Note: I must approve your study!) HOMEWORK: Groups of 3 or 4 Conduct observational study with 20-30* observations Can be with or without intervention Must observe in 2 or more settings (I.e., David King and SUB 2) OR 2 or more times (I.e., morning vs. night) Write summary of data, including: List of variables Operational definitions Means and frequencies Try creating a table for your data Either frequencies, means or both!! Bring your data (printed out spreadsheet, email yourself, or on disk) to class next time

33. 33 Turn In Next Time In-class worksheet stapled to your written data summary Data Summary Must Include: 1. What concept you measured 2. The definition of what you measured, how you operationally defined it and how you recorded it 3. The population or sample that you observed 4. The different times and settings of your observational study 5. Describe your data/Interpreting the statistics i.e., 20% of the people left the bench when the experimenter sat close to them..etc. Descriptive Statistics (Mean, Median, and Mode) of your data on a separate sheet or in a table Try displaying them in a table Use excel if you have a big data set

34. 34 Questions? Refer to Chapter 4 of Shaughnessy et al. Loooooooooooots of detail! Email me Office hours?