Chapter 9: Development

1. Chapter 9: Development The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

3. Development • The process of improving the material conditions of people through the diffusion of knowledge and technology • The development process is continuous, involving never-ending actions to constantly improve the health and prosperity of the people. • Countries can be classified in 2 groups of development • More developed countries (MDCs) • AKA developed countries • Lesser developed countries (LDCs) • AKA emerging or developing countries

4. Why Development Varies Between Countries? • Economic indicators of development • The Human Development Index (HDI) • UN uses 4 factors used to assess a country’s level of development: • Economic = (1) gross domestic product (GDP) per capita • Social = (2) literacy and (3) amount of education • Demographic = (4) life expectancy • Highest possible HDI is 1.0, or 100%--UN has used this since 1990 • Highest ranking HDI is Norway at 0.971 & lowest is Niger at 0.340. • GDP per capita • The value of the total output of goods & services produced in a country during a year divided by the total population. • This measures the average wealth, not its distribution. If only a few people receive much of the GDP, then the standard of living for the majority will be lower than the figure implies. The higher the per capita GDP, the greater the potential for ensuring that all citizens enjoy a comfortable life.

5. HDI—UN updated HDI scores in October 2009 based on 2006 data. It will be several years for HDI scores to reflect the severe 2008 recession.

6. Per Capita GDP—In MDCs, measure typically exceeds $30,000 compared to less than $10,000 in most LDCs.

7. Why Development Varies Between Countries? • In addition to per capita GDP, there are 3 other economic indicators that are useful in distinguishing MDCs & LDCs: • Types of jobs—Income varies b/c ppl earn their living by different means in LDCs compared to MDCs. Jobs fall into 3 types: • Primary sector (agriculture) • Secondary sector (manufacturing) • Tertiary sector (services) • Productivity • The value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it—Can be measured by the value added, which is the gross value of product minus the costs of raw materials & energy • MDCs more productive than LDCs b/c they have better equipment • Availability of consumer goods • Products that promote better transportation & communications are accessible to virtually all residents in MDCs (cars, cell phones, computers)

8. Percent GDP contributed by type of job Tertiary sector contributes a greater share to GDP in MDCs than in LDCs. In MDCs, the tertiary sector contributes an increasing share to GDP, whereas the secondary sector contributes a decreasing share.

9. MDCs have several hundred vehicles per 1,000 persons, compared w/ less than 100 in most LDCs.

10. Why Development Varies Between Countries? • Social indicators of development • MDCs use part of their wealth to provide schools, hospitals, & welfare services, which enables them to be more economically productive. • Education and literacy • Two measures of education: Student/Teacher Ratio & Literacy Rate. • Literacy rate—% of people who can read and write—Exceeds 98% in MDCs and is less than 60% in LDCs. • Health and Welfare • People in MDCs receive more calories & proteins daily than they need. But in some LDCs, people receive less than the daily minimum allowance. • Access to health care—people in MDCs have more access to health care and their people typically pay a lower percentage for use of health care (gov’t in MDCs pays larger % of health care costs)

11. Primary school teachers must deal w/ much larger average class sizes in LDCs than in MDCs.

12. To maintain moderate physical activity, an average individual requires at least 2,350 calories a day. In LDCs, the typical person consumes almost precisely the number needed. B/c these figures are means, a substantial proportion of the population are receiving less than the needed minimum.

13. Why Development Varies Between Countries? • Demographic indicators of development • Life expectancy • Babies born today in MDCs have a life expectancy in the 70s; babies born in LDCs, in the 60s • Other demographic indicators (discussed in Ch. 2): • Infant mortality—rate is greater in LDCs b/c of less adequate health care, malnutrition, or lack of medicine to survive illnesses. • Natural increase—1.5% in LDCs compared to 0.2% in MDCs; Strains LDCs to provide additional hospitals, schools, jobs, etc. • Crude birth rate—23 per 1,000 in LDCs, compared to 12 per 1,000 in MDCs • Crude death rate—Lower in LDCs than MDCs (Surprising, huh) • Diffusion of medical technology from MDCs to LDCs has eliminated or reduced several diseases in LDCs. • MDCs have higher percentages of old people, who have high mortality rates, and lower percentages of children, who have low mortality rates.

14. 2005—Health care is considered a public service in most MDCs, except for the US, where—like in most LDCs—private individuals must pay most health-care costs. Figure 9-10

15. Even with higher GDPs, MDCs spend a higher percentage of their GDP on health care compared to LDCs.

17. Where are MDCs and LDCs Distributed? • Countries of the world can be divided into 9 major regions according to their level of development (next slide). • N. America, Europe, Latin America, East Asia, SW Asia, SE Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, & sub-Saharan Africa. • More developed regions • 2 of the 9 major cultural regions—N. America & Europe—are considered more developed. • The distribution of MDCs & LDCs reflects a clear global pattern. Nearly all MDCs are situated north of 30 degree north latitude. This division is known as the north-south split.

18. In addition to the 9 major regions, three other distinctive areas can be identified—Japan, Oceania, & Russia. With the exception of Oceania, the MDCs are all located north of the red line (north-south split)

19. More Developed Regions • North America: HDI 0.95 • US ranked only 13th in HDI in 2009. • We were near the top in GDP per capita & literacy rate, but lower in education and life expectancy. Education suffered b/c of higher high school dropout rates. Life expectancy was lower b/c many households have inadequate health-care coverage. • US used to be world’s major manufacturer of steel & automobiles, but that market has become diluted in past three decades. • We adopted to loss of manufacturing by holding the world’s highest percentage of tertiary-sector employment, especially health-care, leisure, & financial services. • North America is world’s leading food exporter. • US financial institutions played leading role in recent recession (loans made to people who couldn’t pay them)

20. Europe: HDI 0.93 • During Cold War, Europe was regarded as 2 regions • West—closely linked to US, East—closely linked to Soviet Union • Elimination of economic barriers w/in EU makes Europe the world’s largest and richest market. • European countries hold 15 of 19 highest HDI rankings. • Southern and Eastern European countries lag in level of development, resulting in a lower HDI than that of N. America. • In United Kingdom, as in N. America, hundreds of billions of dollars have been spent of gov’t projects, loans, & grants to stimulate the economy. Many European governments fear gov’t spending b/c they fear high inflation once the economy recovers.

21. Russia: HDI 0.73 • Russia rapidly converted to a market economy after Cold War. • UE soared as inefficient Communist-era businesses were closed. • HDI declined from more than 0.9 in 1980s to below 0.8 after 2000. • In 21st century, Russia experienced economic growth, but the severe recession caused a sharp drop in demand for their oil. • Japan • Japan, the 3rd area of high HDI, has a different cultural tradition from that of N. America & Europe. • Development here was especially remarkable • Japan has an extremely unfavorable ratio of population to resources. • Their gov’t took advantage of supply of ppl who were willing to work hard for low wages. They gained a foothold in the economy by selling the products at lower prices than domestic competitors. • Japan’s eminence was achieved b/c they concentrated resources in rigorous educational systems to create a skilled labor force.

22. Oceania: HDI 0.90 • It’s relatively marginal in global economy b/c of its small # of people & peripheral location. • Although Australia & New Zealand are comparable to HDIs of other MDCs, the people that are scattered among sparsely inhabited lands are less developed. • Over 90% of Australia’s & New Zealand’s residents are descendants of 19th century British settlers. • Australia is leader in mining important minerals (ore, lead, nickel, titanium, zinc). • Increasingly, their economies are tied to Japan & other Asian countries.

23. Less Developed Regions • Latin America: HDI 0.82 • Highest HDI among LDCs • Latin Americans are more likely to live in urban areas than other LDCs. • Neighborhoods w/ large cities enjoy a level of development that’s comparable to MDCs. • Overall, development is hindered by inequitable income distribution. In many countries, a handful of wealthy families control much of the land. • Their economy is closely linked to the US, especially Mexico.

24. Wealth is high in region bordering US to north and in principal tourist region on the Yucatan Peninsula.

25. Wealth is highest along the Atlantic coast and lowest in the interior Amazon tropical rain forest.

26. Less Developed Regions • East Asia: HDI 0.77 • China, the world’s second largest economy (behind US), has become the world’s largest manufacturer. • China—World’s most populous country throughout recorded history & was world’s wealthiest country in ancient times until 16th century. China fell far behind the level of development achieved by Europe and N. America in the 20th century. • In 1949, Communist party won a civil war and forced Nationalist gov’t to Taiwan. After that, priority was given to rural areas, where 2/3 of Chinese people live. Before that, Chinese farmers were tenants who were forced to pay high rents & turn over their crops to property owners. • Under Communism, the system assured the production and distribution of food was enough to support their large population. • 21st century manufacturing increased dramatically b/c their factories pay much lower wages than MDCs. • Weaknesses in economy include primitive banking, inadequate legal protection, & minimal quality control management.

27. As in Brazil, wealth is highest along the east coast and lowest in the remote and inhospitable mountain and desert environments of the interior.

28. Developing regions w/ higher HDI: Latin America & East Asia—Brazil (left) and China (right) are leading producers of motor vehicles.

29. Less Developed Countries • Southwest Asia and North Africa: HDI 0.74 • Middle East—Most of the land is desert that can sustain only sparse concentrations of plant & animal life. Rely on importing most products but has one major asset: a large % of world’s petroleum reserves. • Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, & other oil-rich states in the region have used billions of dollars from oil sales to finance development. Egypt, Jordan, Syria, & other countries lacking vast petroleum reserves cannot invest as much in development. This has created a large gap in per capita income between these countries & causes tension. • Islam, religion of more than 95% of region’s population, dominates the culture. This sometimes conflicts w/ business practices of MDCs. Also, women are excluded from holding most jobs and visiting public places. • The challenge for Middle East is to promote development w/o abandoning the traditional cultural values of Islam.

30. Less Developed Regions • Southeast Asia: HDI 0.73 • Most populous countries: Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, & Philippines • Tropical climate limits intense cultivation of most grains. • Soils are generally poor b/c heat and humidity rapidly destroy nutrients when land is cleared for cultivation. • Nearly 2/3 of population live on island of Java (which has one of the highest population densities) mainly b/c its soil, derived from volcanic ash, is more fertile & b/c Dutch established headquarters there in past. • Region has suffered from a half-century of nearly continuous warfare—Vietnam War—wars have also devastated Laos & Cambodia. • Development has been rapid in Thailand, Malaysia, & Philippines. These regions have become major manufacturers of textiles and clothing, taking advantage of cheap labor.

31. Less Developed Regions • Central Asia: HDI 0.70 • Most countries in this region were once part of Soviet Union. • Iran & Afghanistan are included in this group, although they are more closely tied to southwest Asia. • Development is relatively high in Kazakhstan and Iran, who happen to be the region’s leading producers of petroleum. • Kazakhstan—Oil revenue used for development. Iran—Oil revenue used to maintain low consumer prices or to sweep away elements of development and social customs influenced by Europe or N. America. • Level of development is lower in other “stan” republics. Minerals and agricultural products are principle economic resources.

32. Developing regions w/ middle HDI—Central Asia (left): A bed of cotton is being weeded by hand in Uzbekistan. SW Asia (center): An oil valve is reopened at a refinery in Iraq. SE Asia (right): Packets are being checked at a herbal medicine factory in Indonesia.

33. Less Developed Regions • South Asia: HDI 0.61 • Includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka • Region has 2nd highest population & 2nd lowest per-capita income • India has become world’s 4th largest economy (behind US, China, Japan) • India is world’s leading producer of jute (used to make burlap & twine), peanuts, sugarcane, tea, rice, & wheat. • India has become a major service provider. When you phone an airline or a credit card company, chances are your call will be answered by someone actually located in India.

34. Less Developed Regions • Sub-Saharan Africa: HDI 0.51 • Economic conditions have deteriorated in recent years: • Highest % of people living in poverty • Average African consumes less today than 3 decades ago • Some problems are legacy of colonial era • Mining companies & other businesses were established to supply European businesses w/ raw materials rather than to promote overall economic development in the region. • Political problems have plagued the region • As discussed earlier, European colonies were converted to states w/o regard for distribution of ethnicities in the region. • Main problem is the dramatic imbalance between # of people and capacity of land to feed the population. • Nearly entire region is tropical or dry, but it has by far the highest NIR

35. Developing regions w/ low HDIs: South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa—South Asia (left): Sugarcane is transported to a wholesale market in India. Africa (right): Family in Kenya hoe a field to plant tomatoes.

36. Developing a Strong National Identity • Explain how economic development and the relocation of a state’s capital have contributed to the development of national identity and the strengthening of a state. • Economic Development • Examples of states—China, Japan, US, Mexico, South Africa • Strong economy creates jobs, supports a sense of well-being, and supports confidence in leadership and loyalty to the state—all lead to unity. • Economic prosperity tends to mask ethnic divisions. • National pride reinforces national identity. • Relocation of political state’s capital • Examples of states—Brazil, Nigeria, Pakistan • May return to historically symbolic location, • May focus on poorly developed interior/resource frontier

37. Developing a Strong National Identity • Using contemporary examples, explain how ethnicity and transportation infrastructure may detract from the development of national identity and weaken a state. • Ethnicity • Examples of states—Belfium, Canada, Russia/USSR, Yugoslavia • Ethnic tension erodes loyalty to the state • Tension between ethnic groups can lead to balkanization • Placement of political boundaries w/o regard for ethnic territories can lead to conflict between those ethnicities who lose or gain territory. • Transportation infrastructure • Examples of states—Chile, India, Russia • Poor transportation structure contributes to isolation and a sense of separation. • Size or shape of state may hinder development of transportation infrastructure. Colonial legacy also affects transportation networks.

38. Where Does Development Vary by Gender? • Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) • Compares the level of women’s development with that of both sexes. • UN has not found a single country where women are treated equal • GDI has 4 measures (similar to HDI): • Per capita female incomes as a % of male per capita incomes • # of females enrolled in school compared to the number of males • Percent of literate females to literate males • Life expectancy of females to males • A country w/ complete gender equality would have GDI 1.0 • No country has achieved that level. A high GDI means both men and women have achieved a high level of development, though women may have a slightly lower level than men.

39. Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) Figure 9-17

40. Life Expectancy—The inability of women to outlive men in LDCs derives primarily from the hazards of childbearing. Women in LDCs bear more children than in MDCs, often under poor medical conditions.

41. Average income of women is lower than that of men in every country. Women have 2/3 of income of men in MDCs. In LDCs the disparity between income is low in dollar terms but high on a percentage basis.

42. Percentage of females attending school is a key measure of gender disparity in sub-Saharan African and SW Asia. In Latin America & most of Asia, boys and girls are equally likely to attend school, but attendance is lower than in MDCs.

43. In MDCs, literacy is nearly universal for both sexes. In Latin America & much of Asia, literacy is not universal, but rates are similar for men & women. In sub-Saharan Africa and SW Asia, female literacy is low, substantially lower than males. Low female literacy is an important obstacle to development in these regions.

44. Where Does Development Vary by Gender? • Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) • Compares the decision-making capabilities of men and women in politics and economics. • In every country, fewer women than men hold positions of economic & political power. • Uses economic and political indicators: • Per capita female incomes as a % of male per capita incomes • % of technical and professional jobs held by women • % of administrative jobs held by women • % of women holding national office • As with GDI, a country w/ complete equality of power between men and women would have score of 1.0.

45. GEM—Information was not available to calculate the GEM for most LDCs. A country w/ a much lower GEM than GDI offers women less power than economic resources.

46. UN regards these jobs as offering the greatest opportunities for advancement to positions of influence. Cultural barriers may restrict the ability of women to obtain these jobs in the first place or to secure promotions to top-level decision-making positions.

47. Professional jobs are key measure of economic power, whereas managerial jobs represent the ability to influence the process of decision making.

48. Although more women vote than men, no country has a national parliament or congress w/ a majority of women. The highest percentages are in Northern Europe, where women comprise 1/3 of national parliaments. In US, 15% of Senate & House seats are held by women.

49. What is the trend shown in this graph?

50. Female Enrollment in Secondary Schools • The trend is that there is an increase in girls attending secondary schools. • Identify and explain an effect of this trend on population growth in the developing world: • As more girls are educated • Fertility rates decrease, population growth decreases, CBR drops, NIR slows, Developing countries may enter stage 4, Infant mortality decreases, Maternal mortality declines • Explanations for the above occurrences • The opportunity cost of having children increases as women become more educated. • More educated women are less focused on the home and have a greater desire for a career. • More educated women will have better access to birth control