Chapter Eight

1. Chapter Eight Enlightenment

2. Philosophes • Approach any subject in a critical and inquiring spirit • French philosophes were social and literary critics • Heart of this movement was in Paris, France

3. Salons • Meetings of philosophes in the houses of the wealthy • Madame Geoffrin was a famous salon host • Organized meetings, helped out financially, and introduced philosophes to high society

4. Diderot’s Encyclopedia • 17 volumes • Completed over the yrs 1751-1772 • Composed of scientific, technical and historical knowledge • Most of the important philosophes contributed • Most widely known and read

5. Montesquieu • Spirit of Laws • Separation of powers (against despotism) • Forms of govt varied according to climate – despotism suited to large empires (hot climates) and democracy suited to city states

6. Voltaire • Freedom of thought, freedom of the press and religious toleration • Hated bigotry, intolerance and superstition (clergy) • Secular conception of world history (not within a Christian framework)

7. Rousseau • Thought that society was artificial and corrupt • Civilization was the source of evil and that life in a state of nature would be better • Impulse if more reliable than considered judgement

8. Rousseau’s Social Contract • Contradictory to his notions about the evils of society • State of nature was a brutish condition (like Hobbes) • Later on he says that bad society produces a bad person

9. Social Contract • Locke believed that a contract was between a ruler and a people • Rousseau thought of it as an agreement among the people themselves • It was a social (not just a political) contract

10. Rousseau • General Will of the people – sovereign – govt was secondary • Craved a place where everyone could feel that they belonged

11. Nationalism • Considerations on Poland – Rousseau developed a theory of calculated nationalism • Made applicable to large territories the psychology of city states • Totalitarians and democrats have accepted Rousseau’s ideas

12. Physiocrats - Economists • People who were a part of the govt administration • Adam Smith – functions of govt should be limited to defense, internal security and laws • Free market, free trade, laissez faire

13. Enlightened Despotism • Justified their authority on grounds of usefulness to society • Secular • Justified their existence with reason • Attempted to augment their revenues, devise new taxes, tax new persons formerly tax exempt, centralize govt

14. France • Louis XV =(1715-1774) had a taxation problem in France • Mostly peasants paid taxes (Nobility and clergy evaded most attempts) • Vingtieme – tax on land paid by nobles was the only real way to get at their money

15. Chancellorship of Maupeou • After the 7 yrs war – LXV really needed $ • Set up new parlements – judges were salaried officials who couldn’t oppose govt edicts • Maupeou tried to institute uniform laws throughout France as well

16. LXV dies, LXVI takes over • People demanded that the old parlement be restored • Maupeou’s efforts were the best efforts made at enlightened despotism • LXVI pacifies the nobility • Hires Turgot (forced to resign) • Reform impossible

17. Maria Theresa and Joseph II • Internal consolidation • Enlarging and guaranteeing flow of taxes and soldiers • Breaking local control of territorial nobles and their diets • Bohemian and Austrian unified with a state bureaucracy that took place of local self govt

18. Maria Theresa • Tariff union created – region became largest area of free trade in Europe • Alleviated some of the hardships of serfdom • Son Joseph II

19. Joseph II • The state – the greatest good for the greatest number • Joseph abolished serfdom • Made taxation equal • Equal punishment for equal crimes • Liberty of the press

20. Reforms of Joseph • Religious toleration • Civil rights to Jews • Jewish nobles • Jews could serve in army • Supported independence from Rome • Built up port at Trieste

21. Reforms • Wanted uniformity – made language of empire German • Germanizing of Czechs, Poles, Magyars, etc leads to nationalistic stirrings • Created an efficient bureaucracy • Secret police (instrument of enlightenment)

22. Brother Leopold • Reversed most of Joseph’s reforms • Aristocrats and clerics gain strength in reaction to the reforms

23. Frederick the Great • Codified laws, made courts honest and cheaper • Society stratified – each group paid different taxes and had different duties to the state • Property was legally classified as was persons • Military- officers from aristocrats and soldiers from peasants

24. Russia • PG died in 1725 – no heir • Period of political instability – struggle for power • 1741 – PG’s daughter came to power • Nephew Peter III assassinated – but his wife Catherine was named leader

25. Enlightened Reforms? • Assembled a Legislative Commission in 1767 • Legal codification • Restrictions on torture • Religious toleration • Philosophers championed her work – standard bearer of civilization among a backward people)

26. Serfdom • Serfdom here is the worst in the world • 1773 Emelian Pugachev leads a serf rebellion • Announced himself as the new tsar, Peter III back from travels abroad • Issued an imperial manifesto ending serfdom, taxes and military conscription

27. Pugachev – Peter III?? • Hundreds of thousands join him and pillage throughout the countryside • Famine and betrayal lead to his capture • Brought to Moscow in an iron cage • Drawn and quartered

28. Pugachev • Most violent uprising in Russian history • Catherine responded by conceding more power to the landlords

29. Foreign Affairs • Wanted to expand – 2 aims – Poland and Turkey • Attempted to start war between Prussia and Austria and France

30. Age of Democratic Revolutions • 1760 – older privileged, feudal and ecclesiastical interests were threatened • Pressure comes from the ideas of the Enlightenment • Many govts also failed to cure social and fiscal problems within their country – fueling more change

31. Age of Democratic Revolutions • From the American Revolution to the Revolutions of 1848 – certain principles of modern democratic society were affirmed

32. What these revolutions did not do • Did not demand universal suffrage • Did not aim at a welfare state • Did not question the right of property • Not directed against the monarchy

33. What these revolutions did do • Demand for liberty and equality • Favored declarations of rights and explicit written constitutions • Proclaimed the sovereignty of the people • Formulated the idea of national citizenship

34. What the revolutions did do • Said that citizens were equal – no difference between noble and commoner • The king, nor parliament, nor any group of nobles possessed the power of govt in their own right • Aristocracy must be shunned

35. Age of democratic revolutions • Representation based on frequent elections • Everything associated with feudalism, absolutism, or inherited right was repudiated • Rejection of any connection between religion and citizenship

36. England • All seemed happy with the revolution of 1688 • However, many tried to reform some things about parliament

37. Parliament • Control of Parliament in the House of Commons – determined by patronage of govt jobs, awarding contracts and having infrequent elections • The distribution of seats in the House was skewed • Borough – town having the right to send members to Parliament – no new boroughs were created after 1688

38. Reform Movement • John Wilkes – attacked the policies of George III – expelled from parliament • Was elected to parliament three times and was not allowed a seat • Followers created the Supporters of the Bill of Rights dedicated to parliamentary reform

39. Wilkes • Should the house

40. Edmund Burke • Philosophical conservatism • House of Commons should be independent and mathematically representative • Mbrs of parliament should follow their conscience in voting