Unobtrusive Measures: Four Alternatives to Reactive Measures in Sociology

1. Sociology 690 Unobtrusive Measures

2. Data sources – Four alternatives I. Reactive Measures (Potential for Hawthorne Effect) A. Ask Someone Directly – Survey Research B. Ask Someone else to Report - Observation II. Non-Reactive Measures (Unobtrusive data ) C. Make up the data - Simulation D. Use another’s Data - Existing Data

3. Unobtrusive / Non-Reactive Measures I. Simulation Definition – A model or representation of a process involving: 1) a definition of the components; 2) their relationship; and 3) the realization of an outcome. Generally used when: 1) Time frame is restricted; 2) the Scope is too broad; or 3) there are ethical considerations Involves three contexts in which data is generated: 1) Pure Machine; 2) Person-Machine; and 3) Pure Person..

4. Simulation – Types A. Pure Machine The computer creates both the independent and dependent variables by: 1) making assumptions; 2) specifying a functional relationship; and 3) calculating their outcomes. Also known as Math Modeling. B. Person-Machine The computer creates the the independent variable while the person responds, thereby creating the dependent variable. Also known as Computer Mediated Simulation. C. Pure-Person The persons involved create both the independent and dependent variables through contingent interaction. Also known as Game Theory.

5. Pure Machine - Types There are three criteria by which to categorize machine models: 1. Deterministic vs. Probabilistic Are we analyzing all or some of the elements? 2. Static vs. Dynamic Is the measurement happening once or over time? 3. Discrete vs. Continuous Is the measurement whole numbers or include fractions?

6. 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pure Machine Example - Graph Theory Sociomatrix (A) Sociomatrix (A x A’) In graph notation, the circles are people and the arrows are relationships (one direction for asymmetric relations, double headed for reciprocal relations). The matrix reflects the graph in that the rows are the choosers and the columns are those chosen; there is a 1 present if the relation exists, 0 otherwise. A mutual choice pair matrix can be obtained easily via computer by multiplying the matrix times its transpose (the matrix rotated 90 degrees). This can be further multiplied to obtain all three-way mutual choices-the typical minimum definition for a “clique in social groups.

7. Pure-Person Example – Game Theory Types I. Zero-sum Games - One’s gain is another’s loss II. Non-Zero-sum Games - Joint gains and losses A. Cooperative B. Non-Cooperative (Prisoner’s Dilemma)

8. Pure-Person Example – Prisoner’s Dilemma The Definition is: 1) T>R>P>S and 2) 2R>T+S>2P The name comes from the best individual outcome being in direct conflict with best collective outcomes Here the individual and collective outcomes are the same; that is, both cooperate. Hence there is no dilemma. This is a non-zero sum cooperative game. These numbers reflect the prisoner’s dilemma described above. Because the individual and collective motive are in conflict, we call this a mixed motive or non-zero-sum non-cooperative game.

9. Unobtrusive Measures – Existing Information I. Secondary Analysis - Data Based Public Sources – Bureau of Census Private Sources – ICPSR II. Content Analysis - Text Based Public Sources – Thomas Private Sources – DataWarehouse