Chapter Seven

1. Chapter Seven The Basics of Experimentation II:Final Considerations, Unanticipated Influences, and Cross-Cultural Issues PowerPoint Presentation created by Dr. Susan R. BurnsMorningside College Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

2. Participants • Types of participants • Three guidelines to help you choose participants for your research project: • Precedent • Availability • Nature of the Problem Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

3. Types of participants • Precedent • An established pattern • If your literature review indicated that a particular type of participant has been used successfully in prior research projects in your area of interest, they you may want to consider using this type of participant. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

4. Types of participants • Availability • Availability refers to using an easily accessible population from which to draw participants. • Nature of the Problem • Often the type of research project will determine the type of participant you decide to use. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

5. Number of participants • Once you have decided what type of participant to use in your research project, you must then determine how many participants you are going to test. • In making this decision, there are numerous factors that you must take into account: • Finances • Time • Availability Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

6. Number of participants • Finances • How much will it cost to test each participant? • Animals need to be purchased and cared for. • It may be necessary to pay humans for their participation. • Does the person who actually conducts the experiment need to be paid? • Time • As you test additional participants, time requirements will increase, especially if you test participants individually. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

7. Number of participants • Availability • The sheer number of participants that are available may influence how many you choose in your experiment. • The less within-group variability (i.e., the more homogeneous the participants), the fewer participants we will need. • The greater the within-group variability (i.e., the more heterogeneous the participants), the greater the number of participants we will need. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

8. Number of participants • Power • The number of participants tested is related to the power of our statistical test. • Power is the probability that a statistical test will be significant (i.e., the experimental hypothesis is accepted when it is true). Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

9. Apparatus • IV presentation • Often the nature of the IV will influence the type of apparatus one chooses to use. • DV recording • How the DV will be recorded: • Use of a prepared data sheet in a naturalistic observation study • Use of video recording equipment when its presence will not cause reactivity effects. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

10. Psychological Detective • Although technologically sophisticated equipment can be beneficial in conducting research, there are potential drawbacks with its use. What are some of these drawbacks? Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

11. The Experimenter as an Extraneous Variable • Experimenter Characteristics • Rosenthal (1976) clearly points out that just as the characteristics of the detective can influence the responses of the suspects who are questioned, several aspects of the experimenter can influence the responses of the participant. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

12. Psychological Detective • If all participants in an experiment are tested by the same experimenter, then constancy is established and this extraneous variable is controlled. • If such control is exercised, why are experimenter characteristics, such as age, sex, and race, of potential concern? Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

13. Experimenter Characteristics • Physiological • Characteristics such as age, sex, and race can have an influence on participants’ responses. • Psychological • Characteristics such as hostility, anxiety, introversion or extraversion can also have an influence on participants’ responses. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

14. Experimenter Expectancies • Experimenter expectancies are expectations that cause him/her to behave toward participants in such a manner that the expected response is, indeed, more likely shown. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

15. Psychological Detective • Are experimenter expectancies best categorized as extraneous variables that can confound the experiment, or are they simply nuisance variables that serve to obscure the effects of the IV? Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

16. Experimenter Expectancies • Rosenthal effect • The experimenter’s preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior. • The results of experimenter expectations are often called Rosenthal effects because Rosenthal and his colleagues were among the first to systematically study them. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

17. Controlling Experimenter Effects • Physiological and Psychological Effects • At present the most common procedures for controlling general experimenter characteristics are to: • Use standardized methods • Use careful training to a set standard when the experimenter administers procedures • Standardize appearance, attitude, and so forth as much as possible. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

18. Controlling Experimenter Effects • Physiological and Psychological Effects • If findings are replicated with a different experimenter, then experimenter effects are less likely to be a factor. • A thorough literature review will help make you aware of any relevant experimenter variables in your area of research interest. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

19. Controlling Experimenter Effects • Experimenter Expectancies • The instructions that the experimenter gives to the participants should be carefully prepared so their manner of presentation will not influence the participants’ responses. • Any instructions concerning scoring the participants’ responses should be as objective and concrete as possible and established before the experiment is started. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

20. Controlling Experimenter Effects • Experimenter Expectancies • Instrumentation and Automation • Tape-record experimenter instructions to participants • Printed instructions or computer displays • Automated equipment can ensure the accurate recording and storage of response data. • Single-blind experiment • The experimenter has no knowledge regarding which participants receive which treatment(s). Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

21. Participant Perceptions as Extraneous Variables • Demand characteristics • Features of the experiment that inadvertently lead participants to respond in a particular manner. • Participants in psychological research may attempt to figure out how they are supposed to respond and then behave in this manner. • Good participant effect • The tendency of participants to behave as they perceive the experimenter wants them to behave. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

22. Participant Perceptions as Extraneous Variables • Response Bias • Yea-sayers • Participants who tend to answer yes to all questions. • Nay-sayers • Participants who tend to answer no to all questions. • Response set • The experimental context or testing situation influences the participants’ responses. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

23. Controlling Participant Effects • Demand Characteristics • We can conduct an experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment is being administered to which participants. Such experiments are known as double-blind experiments. • Yea-saying • The most typical control for yea-saying (and nay-saying) is to rewrite some of the items so that a negative response represents agreement (control for yea-saying) or a positive response represents disagreement (control for nay-saying). Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

24. Controlling for Yea-Saying Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

25. Controlling Participant Effects • Response Set • The best safeguard against response set is to review all questions that are asked or items to be completed to see if a socially desired response is implied in any manner. • The answer given or response made should reflect the participant’s own feelings, attitudes, or motives rather than an attempt to appear intelligent or well-adjusted or otherwise “normal.” Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

26. The Interface Between Research and Culture • Cross-cultural psychology • A branch of psychology whose goal is to determine the universality of research results. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

27. Psychological Detective • Before giving you a definition of culture, spend a few minutes on this topic. Decide which aspects or features should be included in a definition of culture. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

28. The Interface Between Research and Culture • Culture • Lasting values, attitudes, and behaviors that are shared by a group and transmitted to subsequent generations. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

29. The Interface Between Research and Culture • Culture, Knowledge, and Truth • Etic • A finding that is the same in different cultures. • Represents an absolute truth. • Emic • A culture-specific finding • Represents a truth relative to a specific culture. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

30. The Interface Between Research and Culture • Ethnocentric • Other cultures are viewed as an extension of one’s own culture. • If other cultures are viewed as an extension of one’s own, the result may be research findings that cannot be generalized beyond one’s own culture. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

31. The Effect of Culture on Research • Choice of the Research Problem • In some cases there may be no doubt that the choice of your research problem is culture dependent. • For example, studying the nature of a crowd at a rock concert. • Nature of the Experimental Hypothesis • Cultural differences may lead to different experimental hypotheses. • For example, studies of personal space. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

32. The Effect of Culture on Research • Selection of the IV and the DV • For example, IV presentation and DV measurement may be accomplished by computer in technologically advanced cultures but not in cultures unfamiliar with computers. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

33. Methodology and Analysis Issues • Participants and Sampling Procedures • The basic question here is whether the sample of participants is representative of the culture from which they were drawn. • For example, extreme differences may exist between samples drawn from large urban centers and those drawn from rural areas. • Type of Survey or Questionnaire Used • Although an existing survey or questionnaire may work in a few instances, most likely the researcher will not be able to use it for research in a different culture. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

34. Methodology and Analysis Issues • Cultural Response Set • A cultural response set is the tendency of a particular culture to respond in a certain manner. • If differences exist among the groups tested in various cultures, a cultural response set may be operating. Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall