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A Brief History of American Higher Education

A Brief History of American Higher Education. Karen Bauer EDCE 644 Fall 2000. For Discussion Today:. Syllabus Assignments, Exam Brief history of American Higher Ed *********************************

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A Brief History of American Higher Education

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  1. A Brief History of American Higher Education Karen Bauer EDCE 644 Fall 2000 KW Bauer EDCE644

  2. For Discussion Today: • Syllabus • Assignments, Exam • Brief history of American Higher Ed • ********************************* • Think back to when you first entered college-- what were your thoughts, feelings, fears, successes? • What is it about the college experience that makes it so highly valued? KW Bauer EDCE644

  3. Brief History • Earliest Colonial colleges began in 17th C. • originally designed to prepare men as clergy • clergy to thoroughly understand Latin writings • defend religious doctrine • 1606 Smith sets out for America • 1633 John Eliot proposed the establishment of Harvard • 1638 John Harvard donated personal land & library for which school named after him KW Bauer EDCE644

  4. What was The Primary Mission of Colonial Colleges? • Education of clergy • Puritans extremely committed to their religious beliefs and wanted to educate children. • Considered a learned ministry vital to community • Who were earliest students? • Sons of wealthy land owners planning for ministry • had to read/write Latin & Greek, translate classics into English; participate in weekly declamations • concept of mall KW Bauer EDCE644

  5. Colonial College Administrators • Only a handful of individuals ran the college. These men completed all college operations-- hired faculty, admitted students, invested $, purchased property, etc. • Harvard had a president, 5 fellows, & a treasurer (all clerics). Also, in earliest colleges they serve life (or nearly) life terms. KW Bauer EDCE644

  6. After Harvard... • 1691 England ruled by 2 cousins- William & Mary • 1693 - these new rulers granted royal charter for 2nd Colonial college, W&M. • It was structured after Queen’s College in Oxford. • Board of Trustees and faculty - 2 separate governing boards; all property rights assigned to President. KW Bauer EDCE644

  7. William & Mary • Faculty the governing body • Blair also head of Anglican Church in VA • had philosophy & divinity school as well as school for American Indians • some students paid tuition, some supported by college. Much financial aid from tobacco taxes KW Bauer EDCE644

  8. More after Harvard…. • ‘Collegiate School in Connecticut’ = Yale, 1701 A reformed Puritan college - purpose ‘to protect the faith of the fathers’ • 1746 - College of NJ at Princeton, NJ chartered by King George, III. Despite its religious orientation, the school did not exclude any person of any denomination, So Princeton broke the strongly religious mold; others followed- Brown, Columbia KW Bauer EDCE644

  9. Historical Climate • Much turmoil as colonies are forming; England tightens control • 1752 French & English War • 1773 Boston Tea Party • 1776 Declare Independence • so in mid-late 1700s we see colleges moving away from Church • First actual non-church college was College of Philadelphia in 1749. A ‘broad practical kind of education’ by Ben Franklin KW Bauer EDCE644

  10. More colleges form • Rhode Island College founded as Baptist institution in 1764; later changed name to Brown (Nicholas Brown primary donor) • Queens College - 1766 - later Rutgers • last colonial college was Dartmouth - 1769 KW Bauer EDCE644

  11. 9 Colonial Colleges • 1636 Harvard • 1693 William & Mary • 1701 Yale • 1746 Princeton • 1754 Columbia • 1755 U of Pennsylvania • 1764 Brown • 1766 Rutgers • 1969 Dartmouth KW Bauer EDCE644

  12. After Revolutionary War • 1782 Washington College • 1785 U. of Georgia • 1785 Coll. of Charleston • 1789 U. North Carolina • 1791 U. Vermont • 1794 Bowdoin • 1833 Newark College KW Bauer EDCE644

  13. After 1800 • After 1800, private colleges in financial difficulty • Board of trustees move to laymen • Students see higher education as a means to worldly advancement more than spiritual salvation • 1819 - University of Virginia - first state-controlled university. Thom. Jefferson to ‘diffuse and advance knowledge.’ KW Bauer EDCE644

  14. Morrill Land Grant Acts • 1862 - 1st Morrill Land Grant Act provided: • support in every state for agric & mechanic arts • public lands - 30,000 acres for each senator & rep. • Funds must be put in endowment at 5% interest • if not used in 5 yrs, returned to federal govt. • 1890 - 2nd Morrill Land Grant Act provided regular (ongoing) federal appropriations • from this Delaware revived Delaware College KW Bauer EDCE644

  15. Cornell University • Andrew White studied at Yale, visited Oxford& Cambridge • conceived the idea of Amer. University free from sectarian contol; dreamed of learned professors, classical & practical prgms, and physically conducive buildings • 1864 White was US senator, met Ezra Cornell • White persuaded Cornell to found new school • Cornell chartered in 1865, White president KW Bauer EDCE644

  16. Cornell University • “I would found an institution in which any person can find instruction in any study.” • No caste system • All courses equally prestigious • Students did work-study • Scientific studies emphasized in all fields • Real purpose of education was to develop individual to their fullest for useful roles in society. KW Bauer EDCE644

  17. Minorities and Women • 1862 White proposed admitting women and blacks • 1872 first woman’s dorm built, but blacks not admitted for another 100 years • 1854 - Lincoln University opened; Oberlin, Bowdoin, Amherst admit blacks • 1881 - Tuskegee founded by Booker T. Washington KW Bauer EDCE644

  18. Graduate Schools • 1861 - Yale awarded 1st Ph.D; but formalized program not established until 1872 • 1872 Harvard began Grad Sch. Arts & Sciences • Hopkins planned to be premier graduate school • hired foremost scholars; was faculty-centered institution; only cream of crop students • U of Chicago, Clark followed Hopkins model • In general, grad pgms did not prepare students for teaching and did little to broaden knowledge KW Bauer EDCE644

  19. Students Make Their Mark in History • 1900-1920s - students remembered as relatively quiet; no great activism, no controversy. • Yes drinking-- 1903 survey found 90% drink in frosh year; 95% drink in senior year • 1913 - corsets out, skirts raised to 6” above floor • 1920s - hedonism was high, cars, radios more available • 1929 crash changes the mood; between 1929-34 50-85% male undergrads unemployed KW Bauer EDCE644

  20. Students Make Their Mark • During WWI and II students didn’t know if they would get to finish college or serve • end of WWII - GI Bill launched • mid-end 1940s time of great growth • 1950s - back to lost commitment, little controversy, no one wanted to rock the boat • 1960s - commitment, relevance, & pot. Also time of huge increase in colleges and number of students KW Bauer EDCE644

  21. Proportion of 18-21 year olds enrolled in college out of 100 individuals Based on ACE (1997) & Flint (1997) Center for the Study of Higher Education Dr. A. F. Cabrera KW Bauer EDCE644

  22. Enrollment in Higher Education 1900-2010 projected Millions 16   14   12 10  8 Estimate 6 4   2     1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 KW Bauer EDCE644

  23. Clark Kerr • president of University of California system • one if not the most instrumental person in creating American HE system • 4 contributions: • modernized and mass-produced the research univ. • developed a vocabulary & philsophy to define the university • incorporated diversity & instit. Types & universal access • directed largest scale assessment & reform effort in history of HE KW Bauer EDCE644

  24. Recent Decades • 1980s and 1990s - end of post WWII expansion & growth. • Downsizing, rightsizing, fiscal constraints, faculty productivity are the new buzzwords • Research Universities especially criticized for esoteric research, little emphasis on teaching, undergrad curriculum, assessment KW Bauer EDCE644

  25. Where Are We Now? • Renewed emphasis on the teaching and learning process • Continued support in tying student life activities to a central core of student learning • More diverse student body • Wider range of reasons for enrolling in college KW Bauer EDCE644

  26. Percent of Women enrolled Source: 1998 Chronicle of Higher Education’s Almanac Issue Center for the Study of Higher Education Dr. A. F. Cabrera KW Bauer EDCE644

  27. College-Age Populations (18-24 years and 25- 29 years) with projections:1983-2008 millions 50 40 18-24 year old population 30 20 25-29 year old population 10 0 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008 year KW Bauer EDCE644 Source: NCES

  28. College Participation Rates18-24 year Old High School Graduates Center for the Study of Higher Education Dr. A. F. Cabrera Source of data: Carter D.J., & Wilson, R. (1997). Minorities in Higher Education: 1996-97 15th Annual Status Report. Washington, DC.: American Council on Education.

  29. Percentage of Adults with a Bachelor's Degree or Higher 1990 23 20 19 18 22 21 24 18 18 24 17 23 19 27 17 21 18 19 17 15 27 17 16 22 25 21 23 12 27 27 21 25 18 14 21 33 17 16 20 18 13 20 17 20 15 16 19 16 20 23 18 23 23 + 18 to 22 FV Volkwein, PSU 0 to 17 KW Bauer EDCE644

  30. PROJECTED PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN NUMBER OF HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES 1996-97 to 2006-07 +29% +10% +5% -19% +14% +17% +17% +39% -12% +29% +7% -7% +15% +13% -18% +27% +16% +21% -5% +1% +17% +79 +3% +33% +3% -6% +17% -17% +36% +20% +19% +12% +35% +7% +51% -2% +24% +14% -2% +42 +16% +4% +9% -4% +30% +3% +15% -16% 40% and above +25% +57% 20% to 39% +10% 1% to 19% Decrease to 0% FV Volkwein, PSU KW Bauer EDCE644

  31. Average Tuition and Fees at4-Year Public, Private Campuses 1991 $16,000 $14,508 $14,000 1999 $12,000 $10,017 $10,000 $8,000 $6,000 $3,243 $4,000 $2,137 $2,000 $0 Four-Year Public Four-Year Private Percent Increase Four Year Public: 52% Four Year Private: 45% KW Bauer EDCE644

  32. Average Tuition and Fees For In-State Undergraduates at 4 Year Public Colleges & Universities, Fall 1999 $9,000 $8,044 $8,000 $6,939 $7,000 $6,436 $6,072 $6,000 $5,398 $4,939 $5,489 $4,453 $5,008 $5,000 $4,134 $3,957 $4,000 $3,339 $3,243 $3,000 $2,568 $2,000 $1,000 $0 CUNY Plattsburgh Ohio State U Conn U West Virginia National Average Rutgers College Penn State U New Hampshire U Mass Amherst SUNY - Albany U Maryland U Delaware U Vermont KW Bauer EDCE644 FV Volkwein, PSU

  33. Median Family Income by Educational Attainment of Householder 1956 to 1996 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 1956 1966 1976 1986 1996  5+ Years College  Bachelor’s Degree        1-3 Years College  Median Family Income in Constant 1966 Dollars       High School       1-3 Years High School     Eighth Grade    Cabrera- KW Bauer EDCE644

  34. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE -- USA December 1999 unemployment rates of the civilian population 25 years and over by educational level (seasonally adjusted) % Overall = 4.1 Dr. Alberto F. Cabrera Source:Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal (2000). Swimming against the tide.

  35. France Canada Belgium Denmark Australia United States Rates of Return for University Level Education, above a high school equivalent(1995 Report) 30 28 25 21 21 20 20 14 14 14 15 12 11 Men 10 8 8 7 5 Women 0 FV Volkwein, PSU KW Bauer EDCE644

  36. Theories of Student Change • Since 1960s- introduction of several theories & models of student growth and change • Developmental theories: • seek to ID dimensions and structures of growth in college, and to explain the dynamics by which growth occurs • movement from general to specific • toward differentiation, integration, complexity • generally hierarchic, structured • due to biological or psychological or interaction KW Bauer EDCE644

  37. Variety of Theories and Models • Psychosocial - view development thru age maturation, sociocultural, & environmental influences • Erikson, Chickering, Marcia, Cross, Heath • Cognitive (Structural) - describe process of change in cognitive structures; hierarchical • Piaget, Kohlberg, Perry, Gilligan, Kitchner & King, Loevinger KW Bauer EDCE644

  38. Theories and Models of Change • Typological Models - examine differences among individuals • Kolb, Myers-Briggs, Sociodemogrpahic, Personality Styles • Person-Environment Interaction Theories - not really developmental; don’t try to explain growth • Astin, Pace, Holland, Tinto, Moos, Stern, KW Bauer EDCE644

  39. College Impact Models - • Don’t focus on internal process , but do examine external process and origins of change • Spady: Student Access - Experience - Performance (1970, 1971) • Astin: Input - Environment - Output (1970) • Astin/Pace: Theory of Involvement (1985) • Pascarella: Model for Assessing Student Change (1985) • Weidman: Model for Undergraduate Socialization (1989) KW Bauer EDCE644

  40. Astin’s I - E - O Model Environment A B Inputs Outputs C KW Bauer EDCE644

  41. Satisfaction Grade Performance Academic Potential Intellectual Development Dropout Decision Family Background Social Integration Institutional Commitment Normative Congruence Significant independent effects for: Structural Relations Both sexes Women only Men only Friendship Support Spady’s (1971) Empirical Model of the Undergraduate Dropout Process KW Bauer EDCE644

  42. Structural/ • Organizational • Characteristics • Of Institutions • e.g. • Enrollment • Fac-Stu Ratio • Selectivity • % Residential • Interactions • With Agents • Of Socialization • e.g. • Faculty • Peers Learning and Cognitive Development • Student Background/ • Pre-college Traits • e.g. • Aptitude • Achievement • Personality • Aspiration • Ethnicity Institutional Environment Quality of Student Effort Pascarella’s (1985) General Causal Model KW Bauer EDCE644

  43. Metzner and Bean’s (1987) Conceptual Model of Nontraditional Student Attrition Academic Variables Study Hours Study Skills Academic Advising Absenteeism Major & Job Certainty Academic Outcome GPA Background And Defining Variables Age Hours Enrolled Educational Goals High School Performance Ethnicity Gender Intent to leave Dropout Psychological Outcomes Utility Satisfaction Goal Commitment Stress Environmental Variables Finances Hours of Employment Outside Encouragement Family Responsibilities Opportunity to transfer Social Integration Variables Memberships Faculty Contact School Friends Key: Direct Effects Direct Effects presumed to be most important Possible Effects KW Bauer EDCE644

  44. Tinto’s (1993) Longitudinal Model of Institutional Departure Formal Formal Intentions Intentions Extracurricular Activities Academic Performance Goals and Institutional Commitments Goals and Institutional Commitments Faculty/Staff Interactions Peer Group Interactions Informal Informal External Commitments External Commitments Goals/Commitments Institutional Experiences Pre-entry Attributes Integration Goals/Commitments Outcome Academic System Family Background Academic Integration Skills and Abilities Departure Decision Social Integration Prior Schooling Social System Time KW Bauer EDCE644

  45. The Role of Finances in the Persistence Process (Cabrera, Nora, and Castaneda (1992)) Financial Aid Academic & Intellectual Development Institutional Commitment Pre-college Academic Performance Intent to Persist Persistence Decisions GPA Goal Commitment Significant Others Encouragement Social Integration Financial Attitudes KW Bauer EDCE644

  46. The Student Learning Model Institutional Context Coursework & Curricular Patterns Student Pre-college Traits Out-of-Class Experiences Learning Outcomes Classroom Experiences ---- Reciprocal effects Source: Terenzini, et al., 1995 Dr. CabreraKW Bauer EDCE644

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