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Sixties, A Decade of Trouble

Sixties, A Decade of Trouble. Vice President Nixon goes to Russia in 1959 He boasted of leaving the US in the dust Then Khrushchev came to the US. The Soviet premier played up his publicity to the hilt, boasting of their missile program. This fueled fears among Americans of a “ Missile Gap”

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Sixties, A Decade of Trouble

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  1. Sixties, A Decade of Trouble

  2. Vice President Nixon goes to Russia in 1959 • He boasted of leaving the US in the dust • Then Khrushchev came to the US • The Soviet premier played up his publicity to the hilt, boasting of their missile program. • This fueled fears among Americans of a “Missile Gap” • The U-2s disproved this

  3. Eisenhower Hands Off to Kennedy • John F. Kennedy having won by a very narrow margin the Presidential election over Nixon • The oldest President in history (Eisenhower) handed of to the youngest President in history (Kennedy) in January 1961 • Eisenhower’s parting words: • "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method...“ • "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."

  4. Khrushchev considered US Vice President Nixon a hardliner, and was delighted by his defeat in the 1960 presidential election. He considered the victor, Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy, as a far more likely partner for détente, but was taken aback by the newly inaugurated US President's tough talk and actions in the early days of his administration.[203] • Khrushchev achieved a propaganda victory in April 1961 with the first manned spaceflight and Kennedy a defeat with the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion. • While Khrushchev had threatened to defend Cuba with Soviet missiles, the premier contented himself with after-the-fact aggressive remarks. • The failure in Cuba led to Kennedy's determination to make no concessions at the Vienna summit scheduled for June 3, 1961. Both Kennedy and Khrushchev took a hard line, with Khrushchev demanding a treaty that would recognize the two German states and refusing to yield on the remaining issues obstructing a test-ban treaty. Kennedy on the other hand had been led to believe that the test-ban treaty could be concluded at the summit, and felt that a deal on Berlin had to await easing of East–West tensions. Kennedy described negotiating with Khrushchev to his brother Robert as "like dealing with Dad. All give and no take."[204]

  5. Cuban Revolution • Starting with a band of less than 100 followers Castro set up an armed resistance within the Sierra Maestra mountains of Cuba in 1956. • Batista regime weakened by arms embargo, unemployment and dissatisfaction of middle class • By late 1958, Castro had developed enough popular support to launch an insurrection. Jan 8, 1959, Casto’s forces took Havana & established Dr Manuel UrrutiaLleó as president to placate concerns US had about his intentions. • By July 1959 the Marxist government became obvious when it nationalized $25 billion in private property. By the end of 1960 all forms of communication were controlled by the state.

  6. Cuban Crisis • Fidel Castro was established as supreme leader, his brother Raul as head of army and all govt appointments were loyal to Castro. • A privileged client-state of Soviet Union, Cuba rapidly built up armed forces 2nd only to Brazil in Latin America • Moderates, teachers, professors, clergy were purged; 20,000 tortured • CIA attempts to assasinate Castro via Mafia connections failed • Castro favored by Khrushchev

  7. By 1961, hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled to the US • In February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his resignation, longest Communist leader on record. • Raul is current president • Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), which provided neighborhood spying

  8. Bay of Pigs Invasion • Determined to rid the Western Hemisphere of Communism, Eisenhower ordered the CIA Special Activities Division to train Cuban exiles in the Miami area in 1960 for a counter-revolution. • CIA grossly underestimated the popular support for the Castro regime and existing anti-Castro guerillas were not included in the plans. The initial invasion site was changed to Bay of Pigs. • On April 4, 1961 President Kennedy and his cabinet approved the Bay of Pigs option • About 1,500 Cuban exiles were trained, equipped with WWII era bombers, landing ships and patrol craft

  9. Bay of Pigs Invasion • Despite preliminary attacks on Cuban airfields & diversionary landings, four days before the invasion, the Soviets were aware of when it would take place. • KGB agents warned Castro and he prepared accordingly: 25,000 army troops, 200,000 militia, 9,000 police were mobilized • 17 April 61, A small invasion force carrying 1,300 troops arrived in Bay of Pigs under cover of darkness. Militia sentries radioed an alert before being neutralized. • By daybreak Cuban aircraft began counter-attacks, but the invaders managed to take Playa Girón and hold positions for two days.

  10. Bay of Pigs Invasion • Massively overwhelmed, the invaders were beaten back and attempts to evacuate them by US destroyers were thwarted by Cuban army tanks. • By 20 April 1961, the invasion was over, only about 30 Brigade survivors were rescued,118 were killed and 1,201 captured. Although they managed to afflict over 4,000 to 5,000 casualties among Cuban forces, the invasion was a complete failure. The prisoners were tried for treason and 5 were executed and the rest sentenced to 30 years in prison • On Dec 21, 1962, the US managed to negotiate for the release of 1,113 prisoners in exchange for $53 million in food and medicine given to Cuba.

  11. Meanwhile ships and carrier-based aircraft stood off Cuba observing the invasion from a distance. • They were under strict orders not to get involved • U. S. Navy jets flew by Brigade troops offering moral support and taking pictures • But the promised air support never materialized • Kennedy did not want to risk getting the US involved or blamed for the invasion. • But the whole plan backfired because of misinformation and bad advise presented by the CIA to the administration

  12. "I made a bad decision," President Kennedy told his personal lawyer days after the invasion. "The decision was faulty because it was based upon the wrong advice. The advice was wrong because it was based upon incorrect facts. And the incorrect facts were due to a failure of intelligence." •     Kennedy immediately appointed a bipartisan presidential oversight board to analyze the intelligence failures that led to the Bay of Pigs.

  13. Report on the Cuban Operation 11/61 The CIA exceeded its capabilities in developing the project from guerrilla support to overt armed action without any plausible deniability. Failure to realistically assess risks and to adequately communicate information and decisions internally and with other government principals. Insufficient involvement of leaders of the exiles. Failure to sufficiently organize internal resistance in Cuba. Failure to competently collect and analyze intelligence about Cuban forces. Poor internal management of communications and staff. Insufficient employment of high-quality staff. Insufficient Spanish-speakers, training facilities and material resources. Lack of stable policies and contingency plans.

  14. Aftermath • The failed invasion severely embarrassed the Kennedy Administration and made Castro wary of future US intervention in Cuba. • Kennedy was angered with the CIA's failure and wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it into the wind." • CIA Director Allen Dulles, CIA Deputy Director Charles Cabell, and Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell were all forced to resign by early 1962. • Castro’s grip on Cuba and his popularity was strengthened and any who thought of resisting him were completely demoralized.

  15. Vienna Summit, June 1961 • Khrushchev was willing to show superiority over the fledgling US President who was still reeling from the “Bay of Pigs” fiasco • Unlike the confrontation in Paris in 1960 with Eisenhower, Khrushchev was cordial, but not conciliatory. • Although many topics were discussed including conflicts in Indochina, the over riding focus was Berlin and as usual, Khrushchev’s rhetoric was strong!

  16. Vienna Summit, 1961 • Khrushchev threatened to sign a “peace” agreement with East Germany that would impinge Western air routes and road access to Berlin unless US withdraws from Berlin • Khrushchev told Kennedy, "Force will be met by force. If the US wants war, that's its problem." "It's up to the US to decide whether there will be war or peace." "The decision to sign a peace treaty is firm and irrevocable, and the Soviet Union will sign it in December if the US refuses an interim agreement." • To this, Kennedy replied, "Then, Mr. Chairman, there will be a war. It will be a cold, long winter.“ • Although the Summit concluded with an impasse, Khrushchev realized that he had underestimated Kennedy

  17. Khrushchev Heats Up the Cold War • After returning empty-handed from Vienna, Khrushchev began to force the issue by building the Berlin Wall • Began placing missiles on Cuba as leverage to force the Americans to make concessions

  18. Cuba: Act II • An Older and Wiser President Kennedy confronted the next crisis in Cuba • Perceiving that US invasion of Cuba was imminent, Castro secretly agreed with Khrushchev to place MRBM (medium range ballistic missiles) with nuclear warheads in Cuba. • Khrushchev still considered Kennedy as weak and indecisive and felt that Kennedy would back down & tolerate the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba.

  19. U-2 Program Continues • After May 1960, U-2 flights over the USSR were abandoned. • Main focus of U-2 flights shifted to Cuba and Indochina where they provided extremely valuable information on military developments there. CIA U-2s were used up until 1974 when the remaining aircraft were turned over to the Air Force. • Flights originated from Laughlin AFB TX and with the advent of inflight refueling, from Edwards AFB, CA

  20. U-2s were used to support the Bay of Pigs invasion and were continued monthly thereafter. • In August 1962, CIA analysts noted substantial increases in Soviet arms shipments to Cuba. On August 29, the U-2 produced hard evidence that the Soviets were building SA-2 SAM sites on western half of Cuba • On Sept 5, more SAM sites were discovered along with the newest Soviet fighter the MiG-21 • Added substance to fears that Soviets might make Cuba a missile base with SAMs to protect them • The U-2 was now vulnerable again, risk of losing another was high

  21. After much debate it was decided to continue over-flights in a more cautious manner (crossing narrow parts of the island rather than flying the length of it. Ground observers reported sightings of what may be SS-4 MRBMs on the western end of the island, increasing the urgency for photo confirmation It was decided to use USAF pilots flying the CIA planes as the Navy and USAF were already engaged in peripheral reconnaissance. The cover story would be that they strayed off course. Indeed on Oct 15, 1962, the U-2s detected the presence of MRBM in San Cristobal area. http://www.foia.cia.gov/browse_docs_full.asp

  22. Crisis Begins • The new discoveries prompted multiple daily U-2 flights from 15-22 Oct. USAF pilots knew the risks as they crisscrossed Cuba in search for more MRBMs. • US Navy RF-8s flew low-level recon missions at high speed based on targeting information from U-2s

  23. RF-8 photos reveal various stages of MRBM site construction. Only one aircraft hit by single 37mm shell; it returned safely.

  24. Kennedy Stands Up to USSR • “It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.” Kennedy announced on Oct 22,1961.

  25. What should US Do? • Do nothing. (Allow missiles to remain in Cuba) • Use diplomatic pressure to get the Soviet Union to remove the missiles. • An air attack on the missiles. • A full military invasion. • The naval blockade of Cuba, which was redefined as a more selective quarantine

  26. Kennedy ordered a Naval quarantine to intercept and turn back Soviet supply ships headed for Cuba: • "To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated." • According to international law a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not feel limited, thinking that the USSR would not be provoked to attack by a mere quarantine • “They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They can't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they don't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin.”

  27. Crescendo of the Crisis • The night of 23 Oct, SAC bomber force goes to DEFCON 2, one level short of all out war, with deliberate leakage to Soviet intelligence • Navy Task Force prepared to deliver an amphibious assault on Cuba • On October 27, 1960, U-2 piloted by Maj. Rudolf Anderson was shot down by SA-2 SAM, pilot killed • There is some evidence that Soviet field commander ordered the attack. Khrushchev halts further SAM firings • Navy patrol bombers & destroyer detected Soviet sub threatening blockading ships and drop explosive signaling devices

  28. Diplomatic Negotiations • Kennedy’s cabinet and Soviet diplomats feverishly worked to resolve the situation peaceably • On Oct 28th, Khrushchev stated that, "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union.“ • The MRBMs were eventually removed & shipped back to USSR.

  29. Aftermath • Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact secretly included removal of US MRBMs from Italy & Turkey • Because this was not made public, resolution of crisis was political embarrassment to the Soviets, in particular Khrushchev was perceived as weakening • Many Americans were unhappy e.g. Gen LeMay held that Cuba should have been invaded • Soviet-Cuban relations were strained as Castro was not included in any of the negotiations • After reluctantly agreeing to accept Soviet missiles and crews in Cuba to begin with • These were withdrawn without Castro’s consent

  30. In Retrospect • In 2002, historians realized how close the crisis came to the bink of all out war: the most dangerous moment in the crisis was unrecognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference in October 2002, attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, at which it was learned that on October 26, 1962 the USS Beale had tracked and dropped signaling depth charges on the B-59, a Soviet Foxtrot-class submarine which was armed with a nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers on the B-59, including submarine captain ValentinSavitsky, political officer Ivan SemonovichMaslennikov, and chief of staff of the submarine flotilla, Commander VasiliyArkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Commander Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack, or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface.

  31. America in Shock • Having given America new hope in the losing race against the USSR, John F. Kennedy’s youth and energy were inspiring • On November 1963, his assassination left the US bewildered and lapsed into national depression • Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) became president

  32. Connections? • The assassin Lee Harvey Oswald Was a Marxist from age of 15. Served two years in USMC where he earned nickname “Oswaldski” Taught himself rudimentary Russian. At age 19, he applied for hardship discharge, traveled to the Soviet Union in October 1959 and attempted to become a Soviet citizen. After spending 2 ½ years in USSR, he married a Soviet citizen and apparently returned to US. 2 days after his arrest as prime suspect, he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby

  33. Kennedy’s Accomplishments • His inaugural statement pretty much characterized his life:"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.“ • Provided priority impetus to get a man on the moon by the end of the decade • Overall the victor in the Cuban Crisis • Eventually led to better understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev • Finally achieved a test ban treaty in 1963 • His administration saw the beginning of new hope for equal rights of Americans

  34. On August 5, 1963, after more than eight years of difficult negotiations, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty • The Treaty: • prohibits nuclear weapons tests or other nuclear explosions under water, in the atmosphere, or in outer space • allows underground nuclear tests as long as no radioactive debris falls outside the boundaries of the nation conducting the test • pledges signatories to work towards complete disarmament, an end to the armaments race, and an end to the contamination of the environment by radioactive substances.

  35. Supreme Soviet • Legislative body of the USSR formed in 1938 with representatives from 15 Socialist Republics. • Each SSR has its own Soviet which congregated twice year as Supreme Soviet of all SSRs. • Its representatives were elected by unopposed elections until late 1980s when first free elections held. • The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was a permanent body that carried on while the Soviet was between sessions (analogous to Central Committee of CP) • Council of Ministers is the executive body appointed by the Supreme Soviet on first session of each convocation, every 4 years • The chairman is the Premier of the Soviet Union

  36. Khrushchev’s Downfall • The ambitious military and space technology programs of the USSR under Khrushchev’s leadership took a heavy toll upon the economy. Of the GNP was funneled into them. • Beginning in 1964 Khrushchev’s rival Leonid Brezhnev began calling for Khrushchev’s removal during the premier’s absence • Accused him of policy failures & erratic behavior • Brezhnev member of Politburo since 1957 • Bloodless coup ensued

  37. “I'm old and tired. Let them cope by themselves. I've done the main thing. Could anyone have dreamed of telling Stalin that he didn't suit us anymore and suggesting he retire? Not even a wet spot would have remained where we had been standing. Now everything is different. The fear is gone, and we can talk as equals. That's my contribution. I won't put up a fight.” • On October 14, 1964, the Presidium and the Central Committee each voted to accept Khrushchev's "voluntary" retirement from his offices. • Brezhnev was elected First Secretary • Aleksei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev as premier.

  38. Turmoil in Southeast Asia • Colonies of France since 1888, French Indochina consisted of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam • League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) was formed in 1941 initially movement to liberate Vietnam from the French and later the Japanese in WWII • Ironically, Viet Minh were funded by the US and Nationalist China in opposition to the Japanese • Leader was Ho Chi Minh • Established first Communist government in Indochina

  39. Ho Chi Minh • Embraces Communism while he spent four years in France under the influence of Marcel Cachin founder of French Communist Party (SFIO) in 1920. Cachin was a member of French National Assembly and was the Communist Presidential candidate for 4 elections: 1931, 1932, 1939, 1953. • Joined with Cachin as founding member of SFIO and became advocate for liberation of French Indochona in France • Son of Confucian scholar who saw to it his sons had a French education. • In his twenties he traveled the world, working various menial jobs but was always an avid book-reader with strong political interests

  40. Ho Chi Minh • Missed Opportunities? Twice he petitioned for a nationalist government in Vietnam but was unsuccessful: • Treaty of Versailles 1919 • President Woodrow Wilson 1920 • After 1921, he went to Moscow, became Comintern’s Asia representative and principle theorist on anti-colonial warfare. • After participating in Fifth Comintern Congress of 1924, he returned to Asia in Nov where he taught classes in Canton on revolutionary movement

  41. Ho Chi Minh • With the coup of anti-communist Chiang Kai Shek in 1927, Minh fled to Moscow and Europe until he returned to China in 1938 as an advisor to Chinese Communist forces. • In 1940 he adopted the name Ho Chi Minh “bringer of enlightenment” • In 1941 he returned to Vietnam and organized the Viet Minh independence movement financed by the US for resistance against the Vichy French (Axis) and Japanese in WWII.

  42. Rise of Communism in Indochina • Viet Minh were strengthened by 600 Japanese soldiers who defected to their ranks and taught them to be expert fighters. • As in Europe, the end of WWII brought a power struggle as Communism sought to fill the vacuum left by the retreating Japanese • In August 1945, Japanese handed government function over to Viet Minh and other rival Vietnamese factions while keeping former French officials imprisoned. This take over is sometimes referred to as “August Revolution”

  43. After the August Revolution (1945) organized by the Việt Minh, Hồ became Chairman of the Provisional Government (Premier of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam that borrowed much from the French and American declarations. Though he convinced Emperor BảoĐại to abdicate, his government was not recognized by any country. He repeatedly petitioned American President Harry Truman for support for Vietnamese independence, citing the Atlantic Charter, but Truman never responded. The new government only lasted a few days

  44. Under the Potsdam Agreements, occupation forces were set up in Vietnam with Nationalist Chinese forces north of the 17th parallel and British forces south of the 17th parallel • At request of Viet Minh, Nationalist Chinese forces gave way to colonial French government in 1946. (French preferred over Chinese) • Soon relations between the French and Viet Minh broke down. The First Indochina War began. In 1950, Ho met with Stalin and Mao to get their support

  45. First Indochina War • When Ho Chi Minh’s Marxist intensions became known, the US turned against him & supported 80% of French expenses. • The Viet Minh won the war and in 1954 the French gave up all claim to the colony in Vietnam. • 1954 Geneva Conference established Democratic Republic of Vietnam as legitimate government north of the 17th parallel under Ho Chi Minh. To the south was the State of Vietnam under the emperor Bao Dai. All opposing forces were to withdraw to their respective sides after the cease fire. This partition was only to be temporary • The conference stipulated that Vietnam would be unified on the basis of free, internationally supervised elections that would take place in July 1956

  46. Republic of Vietnam Established • In 1955, Bao Dai’s Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem plotted to oust the emperor. • An effective smear campaign destroyed Bao Dai’s reputation • Unofficial elections held in south were rigged so that Diem was declared the new president. • The State of Vietnam became the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), a non-Communist government with Diem as President. • A 300 day transition period was granted to allow people to migrate to more favorable conditions • About a million Vietnamese (mostly Catholic) migrated to the south and a much smaller number (mostly Communists) migrated north

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