A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science

1. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Christo J. Els School of Continuing Teacher Education Faculty of Education Sciences, North-West University Potchefstroom, South Africa

2. Education = Interdisciplinary Social Science • Social Sciences: study subjective, inter-personal, objective and structural aspects of society • Includes such diverse disciplines as: • Anthropology • Education • Political Sciences • History • Psychology • Developmental Sciences • Sociology • Philosophy • Economics • Human Geography • Linguistics (Smelser & Baltes, 2001)

3. Education = Interdisciplinary Social Science • Education = Social Science for it empirically studies teaching and learning theories and practices in individual, social, and economic contexts • Education = Interdisciplinary, e.g. • Mathematics Education combines Mathematics (a Formal Science) with Education (a Social Science) • Biology Education is a Natural Life Science taught and learned through educational principles, skills, and techniques

4. Education = Interdisciplinary Social Science • Influential medium to promote socio-political policies and ideologies, e.g. democracy, constitutional principles, equality and human rights “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the World” (Nelson Mandela)

5. Investigating the Nature of Living Organisms • Analytic Method (Reductionism) - divides the organism into component parts, and examines the parts separately • Holistic Method - examines that organism as a single, unified, multi-dimensional system

6. Holism • General Jan Christiaan Smuts (1870-1950) • South African scholar and statesman • Design, implementation and establishment of the League of Nations & the formation of the international peace organisation, the United Nations • Founding father of Holism

7. Holism • Smuts coined the term Holism (along with the adjective Holistic) from the Greek word ολος (whole) Smuts (1926) defines “holism” as: “the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution”

8. Holism • Holism and Evolution (Smuts, 1926) = foundation theory for: • Systems Thinking • Complexity Theory • Neural Networks • Semantic Holism • Holistic Education • General Systems Theory in Ecology

9. Holism • Heart of Smuts’ Theory = concept of wholes - the real units of everything in nature and the universe • Every organism, plant, animal, and human, should be recognised as a holistic unity, with a certain internal organisation and an individual specific character of its own • The creative activity, progress, and development of wholes in every person is marked by the development of even more complex and significant wholes • The unity of parts (wholes) is as close and intense as to become more than the sum of its parts through creative evolution, i.e. they are synergistic (Smuts, 1926)

10. Holistic Education • Views each learner as a multi-dimensional holistic unity, consisting of various developmental domains, including • Physical • Motor • Emotional • Spiritual • Cognitive • Social, etc., which through creative learning processes, develops even more complex and significant wholes (Cmich, 1984; Crose, Nicholas, Gobble, & Frank, 1992; Martin, 2002; Mayes, 2007; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Seeman, 1989; Smuts, 1926)

11. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Carl Jung’s typology is concerned with the movement of psychic energy, and the way in which the individual habitually or preferentially orients to the world (Sharp, 1987) • It is a psychology dealing with the organisation and delimitation of psychic processes that can be shown to be typical, and also explains the relationship of the individual to the world (Jung, 1921; 1977) • Jung uses a holistic approach to human development, reflected in what he called Individuation - a growing process of self-realisation in which one becomes a separate holistic unity through the development and integration of psychological, physical, and social dimensions (Jung, 1921; 1977)

12. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Opposite Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion • Extraversion [E] • “outward movement of interest towards objects and people in the outer world” • “characterised by an outgoing, candid, and accommodating nature that adapts easily to a given situation, quickly forms attachments, and, setting aside any possible misgiving, will often venture forth with careless confidence into unknown situations” (Jung, 1921) • Introversion [I] • “movement of interest away from the outside world of people and objects towards the inner subjective world” • “Normally characterised by a hesitant, reflective, retiring nature that keeps itself to itself, shrinks from objects and is always slightly on the defensive” (Jung, 1921)

13. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Opposite Perceiving Functions:Sensation and Intuition • Sensation [S] • perception through physical senses • Intuition [N] • gestalt perception through the unconscious (e.g., receptivity to unconscious contents) • Both Sensation [S] and Intuition [N] are considered non-rational perceiving functions

14. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Opposite Judging Functions: Thinking and Feeling • Thinking [T] • the process of cognitive and analytical thought • function of analytical and logical discrimination • Feeling [F] • subjective judgment or valuation • way of evaluating and discriminating one’s likes and dislikes in a rational manner

15. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • The individual naturally, and to some extent innately, prefer either: Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I] Sensation [S] or Intuition [N] Thinking [T] or Feeling [F] • Jung’s typology • valuable tool for exploring developmental domains • provides empirical information concerning different learning styles associated with different psychological type preferences • Jung stresses psychological types as critical apparatus, not designed in any sense to label people, but rather intended as a tool to better understand people

16. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Constructs of Attention and Interest (Learning Styles) • Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I] with: • Sensation with Thinking [ST] • Sensation with Feeling [SF] • Intuition with Feeling [NF] • Intuition with Thinking [NT]

17. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners with a preference for Extraversion [E] prefer active experimental learning styles, and learn best by talking to others about their ideas (Fourqurean et al., 1990; Goldsmith & Wharton, 1993; Gordon et al., 1986; Luh, 1991; Penn, 1992)

18. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners who prefer Introversion [I]naturally prefer reflective, observational and abstract learning styles, are visual and auditory learners, and prefer to work on their own (Fourqurean et al., 1990; Goldsmith & Wharton, 1993; Gordon et al., 1986; Luh, 1991; Penn, 1992)

19. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners with a Preference for STare interested in concrete facts about real things and everyday activities. They need precise step-by-step instructions and practical reasons for doing so, and learn best by doing hands-on activities (Briggs Myers, 1998; Briggs Myers et al., 2003; Briggs Myers & Myers, 1995)

20. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners with a Preference for SF are interested in practical information about people, and like to create friendly environments. They learn best by doing hands-on activities with other people, and need precise, step-by-step instructions (Briggs Myers, 1998; Briggs Myers et al., 2003; Briggs Myers & Myers, 1995).

21. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners with a Preference for NTare interested in underlying gestalt explanations about how the world works. They learn best by categorising, analysing, and applying logic, and they need difficult problems to solve (Briggs Myers, 1998; Briggs Myers et al., 2003; Briggs Myers & Myers, 1995)

22. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Learners with a Preference for NF are interested in new ideas for understanding people, and also like symbolic and metaphorical activities. They learn best through imagining and creating things with other learners. However, they need general direction with creative freedom to do things their own way (Briggs Myers, 1998; Briggs Myers et al., 2003; Briggs Myers & Myers, 1995)

23. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Each preference requires unique learning and teaching styles, sensitive to the needs of the specific type (Briggs Myers, 1998; Briggs Myers et al., 2003; Briggs Myers & Myers, 1995; Goldsmith & Wharton, 1993)

24. A Holistic Jungian Perspective on Learning • Guild and Garger (1985) propose the following guidelines for effective learning and teaching, based on Jung’s typology: • Teachers should always attempt to match their styles of teaching with the needs of different learners (use and facilitate a variety of teaching and learning styles) • Learners of all styles should be challenged to meet the expectations of academic standards and outcomes

25. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science • By no means a rigid classification system for labelling learners or students, but rather a holistic, multi-dimensional, integrated, learner-centred perspective to education • Explains education from a learner-centred perspective, and approaches each individual learner as a holistic unity within the holistic organisational structure of society • The proposed ontology approaches each individual learner, as well as the entire education system, as holistic integrated unities, which through creative education processes, develops even more complex and significant wholes

27. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science The Individual Learner • Naturally, and to some extent innately, prefers either Extroversion [E] or Introversion [I] • Dominant preferences are visible among very young children (Jung, 1921, 1977) • Learners are also influenced by socio-economic circumstances, families, communities, and the individual or collective orientations and valuesof the group (DeVito, 2001; Hatfield & Rapson, 1996; Hofstede, 1997)

29. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Pre-School Reception Phase (five to six years old) • Pre-School Grade R Programmes should provide opportunities to foster • Physical • Creative and Spiritual • Social, Moral and Emotional • Analytical developmental needs of children

31. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Foundation Phase (seven to nine years old) • Students learn to read and write in their home language, and begin to learn another language • Developmental needs • Physical Education • Literacy • Life Skills • Numeracy

32. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Foundation Phase (seven to nine years old) • Learners develop preferences for either • Sensation [S] or Intuition [N] • Analytical Thinking [T] or Feeling [F] • Students who prefer Physical Activitieshave a preference for Sensation [S] • Students who prefer Literacy and Religious Studiesfavour their Intuition [N] function • Students who prefer Life Skillsregularly prefer their Feeling [F] function • Students who prefer Numeracyusually prefer their Analytical Thinking [T] function

34. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Intermediate and Senior Phases • Students with a natural preference for Sensation [S] (practical skills and concrete facts) are often interested in Practical Training and Skills Education school subjects, e.g. • agricultural sciences, agricultural technology, agricultural management practices, civil technology, electronic technology, mechanical technology, and engineering graphics and design • Dominant preference for Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I], with Sensation [S] as superior function, is also integrated with either Feeling [F] or Thinking [T] as an auxiliary function, e.g. a student’s superior preference for Sensation [S] (practical facts) combined with an auxiliary preference for Feeling [F] (subjective judgement, with an interest in other people), may show, for example, an interest in both civil technology and economics. Sensation [S] (practical facts) as superior preference, combined with Analytical Thinking [T] as an auxiliary preference, may show, for example, an interest in both engineering graphics and geometry

36. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Intermediate and Senior Phases • Students with a natural preference for Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, innovative ideas and spirituality) are usually interested in Humanities and Arts Education school subjects, e.g. • languages, religious studies, dance studies, design, dramatic arts, music, and visual arts • Dominant preference for Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, and innovative ideas) is often supported by an auxiliary preference for Feeling [F] (rational subjective judgment and valuation, with emphatic consideration and interest in others), encouraging, for example, an interest in both arts and human rights. On the other hand, a learner with Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, and innovative ideas) as superior preference, combined with Analytical Thinking [T] as an auxiliary preference, may show, for example, an interest in both design and computer technology

38. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Intermediate and Senior Phases • Students with a natural preference for Feeling [F] (rational subjective judgment and valuation, with emphatic consideration and interest in others) are usually interested in Social Sciences Educationsubjects: • history, geography, life orientation, accounting, business studies, economics, consumer studies, hospitality studies, and tourism • dominant preference for Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I], with Feeling [F] as superior function, is also integrated with either Intuition [N] or Sensation [S] as an auxiliary function, e.g. a dominant preference for Feeling [F] (rational subjective judgment and valuation, with emphatic consideration and interest in others), combined with an auxiliary Sensation [S] function (an interest in facts), may show, for example, an interest in subjects such as history and geography. Feeling [F] combined with Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, and innovative ideas) as an auxiliary preference, may show, for example, an interest in both tourism and dance studies.

40. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Intermediate and Senior Phases • Students with a natural preference for Thinking [T] (logic, analytical problem solving, and critical thinking) are usually interested in Natural and Formal Sciencesschool subjects: • life sciences, natural sciences, mathematical literacy, mathematics, physical sciences, computer applications technology, and information technology • dominant preference for Thinking [T] as superior function is integrated with either Intuition [N] or Sensation [S] as an auxiliary function. For example, Thinking [T] (analytical thought) as superior function, and Sensation [S] (concrete facts) as auxiliary function, may show, for example, an interest in both agricultural management practices and computer applications technology. Analytical Thinking [T] as superior preference, combined with Intuition [N] (aesthetics) as an auxiliary preference, may show, for example, an interest in both life sciences and music.

42. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Natural prefer to learn practical skills, work with concrete facts, and do practical work (Sensation [S]), e.g. • transport services, administration, production management, mechanical services, supervision, micro-entrepreneurship, agriculture, sport, movement education, civil technology, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, entrepreneurship, assistants, equipment operators, wage labourers, and factory workers in the manufacturing, utilities, production, and processing industries • dominant preference for Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I], with Sensation [S] as superior function, is integrated with either Feeling [F] or Thinking [T] as an auxiliary function, e.g. Sensation [S] as superior function, combined with Thinking [T] (analytical thinking) as auxiliary function, prefer to pursue pragmatic occupations such as mechanical engineering, geometry, business management, and accounting. Dominant preference for Sensation [S], with Feeling [F] as auxiliary function, like to help people in practical ways, and are frequently drawn, for example, to customer relations, teaching, and sales

44. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Students with a natural preference for Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, innovative ideas and spirituality) are usually interested in Humanities and Arts Sciences, e.g. • languages (literature, creative writing, poetics, phonetics, morphology, linguistics, semantics, rhetoric); applied arts (visual communication, graphic design, user interface design); performing arts (music education, music, conducting, musicology, dance, choreography); visual arts (art history, calligraphy, drawing, painting, fine arts, photography, printmaking, sculpting, art conservation); theatre (arts administration, acting, directing, design, dramaturgy, playwriting, musical theatre); film and television (animation, directing, production); architecture (urban/town planning, interior design, landscapes); design (industrial design, fashion design, textile design); religious studies, etc.

46. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Intuition [N] - Humanities and Arts Sciences • dominant preference for Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I], with Intuition [N] as superior function, is also integrated with either Feeling [F] or Thinking [T] as an auxiliary function, e.g. dominant preference for Intuition [N] (gestalt perception, aesthetics, and innovative ideas) is often supported by an auxiliary preference for Thinking [T] (theoretical, analytical, and critical thought), lived out, for example, in engineering, research, management, and programming careers. People with a dominant preference for Intuition [N], with Feeling [F] as auxiliary function, often pursue creative writing, counselling, or religious occupations

47. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Students with a natural preference for Feeling [F] (subjective judgment valuation, with emphatic interest in others) are usually interested in Social Sciences: • geography, life orientation, accounting, business studies, consumer studies, hospitality studies; tourism; sociology (applied, collective, demography, organisational studies, communities, cultures, criminology, social capital and control, urbanology, social research); anthropology (ethnology, ethnohistory, political, medical, educational, sociolinguistics); demographic studies; history (national and international); economics (developmental, consumer, ecological, energy, entrepreneurial, financial, industrial; labour; micro-, macro-, public, real estate, transport, welfare); human geography (geomorphology, cartography, human geography, hydrology, palaeogeography, health, tourism, climatology); political sciences; psychology; education; ethnics, gender and sexuality studies; archaeology, etc.

48. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Feeling [F] - Social Sciences: • dominant preference for Extraversion [E] or Introversion [I], with Feeling [F] as superior function, is integrated with either Intuition [N] or Sensation [S] as an auxiliary function, e.g. Feeling [F] (rational empathy for others) as superior function, combined with Intuition [N] (gestalt perception) as auxiliary function, may encourage, for example, a research interest in the emotional development of unborn children. A person with a dominant preference for Feeling [F] (subjective judgment valuation, with emphatic interest in others), with Sensation [S] (practical facts and skills) as auxiliary function, may, for example, be interested in both health sciences and nutrition, pursuing a career in the production of natural health products.

49. A Holistic Learner-Centred Ontology for Education as an Interdisciplinary Social Science Post-School Training and Higher Education • Students with a natural preference for Analytical Thinking [T] (logic, analytical problem solving, and critical thinking) are usually interested in Natural and Formal Sciences • physics (optic, atomic, mechanical, astrophysics, molecular physics, thermodynamics); chemistry (analytical, theoretical, organic, inorganic, mathematical, biochemistry); life sciences (anatomy, biology, genetics, biochemistry, virology, endocrinology, zoology, parasitology, paleobiology, microbiology, ecology, botany); earth sciences (geophysics, oceanography, geography, geology, geochemistry, hydrology, meteorology, mineralogy, soil analyses, environmental sciences); space sciences (astronomy, astrophysics, astrobiology, cosmology); mathematics (algebra, geometrics, algorithms, logic, applied, probability, statistics, information mathematics); computer science (programming, information communication technology, data structures, networks, information systems, security, computer technology), etc.