Psychology

1. Chapter Six R. M. Tolles Psychology

2. Section 1: Explain the principles of classical conditioning, and describe some of its applications. Classical Conditioning Stimulus – something that produces a reaction or a response Response – answer to stimulus Conditioning – pairing of different stimuli creating learning Classical Conditioning – simple form of learning in which one stimulus comes to call forth the response usually called forth by another stimulus Association? - two stimulus are linked together

3. Ivan Pavlov Learn to associate one thing with another when food is involved What did he set out to do? - set out to learn about the digestive system

4. Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning Experiments on dogs

5. Classical Conditioning and Pavlov's Dogs: Hypothesis Dogs salivate when food is placed in their mouths Dogs salivate at mere sight of food Hypothesis: Dogs can be trained, or conditioned, to salivate when exposed to an external stimulus

6. Continuing Pavlov's Experiment Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination Other Aspects of Classical Conditioning

7. Pavlov's Methodology and Results Harness dog and place tube to collect saliva Present external stimulus (bell) immediately before giving food Results: After a few trials, the dog salivates upon hearing the bell Works with other stimuli as well

8. Pavlov's Conclusions Unconditioned Response (UCR)‏ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)‏ Conditioned Response (CR)‏ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)‏ because of because of

9. US, UR, CR, and CS Unconditional Stimulus – stimulus that causes an automatic response that is not learned. Unconditioned Response – automatic response Conditioned Response – a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral, or meaningless Conditioned Stimulus – a learning stimulus

11. Adapting to the Environment Classical Conditioning allows organisms to adapt to the environment Taste Aversions – learned avoidance of a particular food (helps to avoid damage)‏ Extinction – when the conditioned stimulus, result; the CS no longer caused the CR to occur Spontaneous Recovery – recovering an extinct response

12. Generalizations and Discrimination Generalizations – act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar to each other Discrimination – act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other Application of Classical Conditioning Flooding: exposing until the stimulus is extinct Systematic Desensitization – coping strategies Counter conditioning: pair good with bad

13. Section 2: Explain the principles of operant conditioning, and describe some of its application operant Conditioning People and animals learn to do things and not to do things because of the results Reinforcement – process by which a stimulus increases the chances that the behaviour will repeat.

15. Types of Reinforcement Primary – basic needs; such as water, food Secondary – learned, associated with established reinforcer's; money Positive and Negative Reinforcer's Positive – increase frequency of behavior Negative – decrease frequency of behavior Rewards (+) and Punishments (-)‏

16. Schedule of Reinforcement Schedule of Reinforcements – when and how often reinforcement occurs Continuous R – every time the behavior occurs Partial R – not ever time the behavior occurs Interval S – amount of time in-between the behavior and reinforcement Ratio S – number of times of R must be given to get the response 1:1, 2:1

17. Extinction and Application Extinction – occurs as a result of repeated performance of the response without reinforcement Applications Shaping – a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction. Programmed Learning – (Skinner) learning can be broken down into steps and thus learned no matter how complex Behavior – rewards and punishment

18. Section 3: Discuss the cognitive factors in learning and observational learning. Cognitive Factors in Learning Learning by watching and listening to others. Thinking and having a purpose, not a mechanical process Latent Learning – learning that remains hidden until it is needed. Observation Learning – acquiring knowledge by seeing or viewing and then imitating

19. Albert Bandura • Observational Learning exists • Learning from the media • Emotions from TV - learning?

20. B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning involves an automatic response to a stimulus Operant conditioning involves learning how to control one’s response to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment

21. The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results Rats placed in “Skinner boxes” Shaped to get closer and closer to the bar in order to receive food Eventually required to press the bar to receive food Food is a reinforcer

22. Rates and Types of Reinforcement: Additional Experiments Fixed-ratio: food given after a fixed number of responses Variable-ratio: number of responses required to get food changes each time Fixed-interval: food given after a certain amount of time elapses Variable-interval: amount of time required to get food changes each time

23. Skinner’s Importance Work Education: programmed instruction Parenting Personal goals

24. Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus Punishment 1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus 1. Unpleasant stimulus = 2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus 2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus =

25. Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behaviour. Operant behaviour "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behaviours which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviours conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.[1]