Attitudes and Consistency Theories

1. Attitudes and Consistency Theories

2. Definition: An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward some attitude object. • Attitudes are: • Learned or acquired • Predispositions to respond • Evaluative, e.g., favorable or unfavorable • Directed toward something What is an attitude?

3. Likert scales • Known as “equal appearing interval” scales • 5-7 scale points • Ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree • Uncertainty regarding the neutral point Sample Likert-Type Scale Item The death penalty should be abolished. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ strongly moderately neutral/ moderately strongly agree agree not sure disagree disagree Measuring Attitudes

4. Semantic Differential Scales • Based on the connotations of words • Relies on bipolar adjectives (antonyms) • 5-7 scale points • Respondent checks the “semantic space” between the antonyms • Uncertainty regarding the neutral space Sample scale items from McCroskey’s Ethos Scale Kanye West expert ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ inexpert unselfish ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ selfish timid ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ bold tense ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ relaxed trained ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ untrained Measuring Attitudes

5. Attitude-Behavior Correlation (ABC) is stronger when: • A specific attitude is being measured. • Multiple measures of the attitude are made. • The attitude is based on personal experience. • The attitude was formed via central processing. • Attitudes central to the belief system are involved. • The respondents are low self-monitors. • The attitude is accessible or can be activated. Attitude-Behavior Correlation

6. Social Desirability Bias • Respondents may provide the “socially correct” response. • Non-Attitudes • Respondents may make up opinions so as not to appear uninformed. • Acquiescence Bias • Respondents may provide the answer they think the investigator wants to hear. • Mindfulness • Respondents may not be aware of their own attitudes. Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes

7. Appearances • Clothing, artifacts, and other appearance cues • Associations • Memberships, affiliations, social networks • Behavior • Actions, habits, lifestyles • Physiological measures • Galvanic skin response, facial electromyography, fMRI Other Ways of Inferring Attitudes

8. Developed by Fishbein & Ajzen in the 1970’s • The TRA is a “rational” model of persuasion. • It presumes people are rational decision makers. • It presumes people make use of available information. • Behavioral intentions are the best predictor of actual behavior. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

9. Theory of Reasoned Action

10. Ned has begun drinking heavily ever since college. • Attitude toward the behavior: “I think drinking is ruining my health and it caused me to get fired from my job.” • Subjective Norm component: “I know my friends and family would like me to stop drinking.” • Intention: “I intend to stop drinking altogether.” • Behavior: Ned attends his first AA meeting the next day. Illustration of the TRA

11. An extension of the TRA • The TpB adds the additional element of perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy). • Internal factors might prevent or reduce control (lack of knowledge, lack of skill). • External factors might prevent or reduce control (limited time or resources). • Intentions correlate more strongly with actual behavior when there is perceived behavioral control. Theory of Planned Behavior (TpB)

12. Attitudes exist in associative networks. • Association are often unconscious or implicit. • Changes in one attitude may have a “ripple effect” elsewhere in a person’s cognitive system. • Persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes. • The goal is to link their product, brand, idea to favorable attitudes. contraception school prayer abortion sex education family values family leave premarital sex divorce Consistency Theories marital fidelity child support dead-beat dads

13. Image-Oriented Advertising • brands are matched with idealized lifestyles. • Symbols are appropriated and paired with brands. • Brand Personality • Associations endow brands with human qualities. • fun, sophisticated, tough, youthful. • Sloganeering • Slogans foster favorable associations. • “Breakfast of Champions” (Wheaties) • “Diamonds are forever” (DeBeers) • Sponsorship • Brought to you by… Manufacturing Positive Associations

14. “In the factory we make cosmetics; in the drugstore we sell hope.” Charles Revson (Founder of Revlon) • “An image . . . is not simply a trademark, a design, a slogan or an easily remembered picture. It is a studiously crafted personality profile of an individual, institution, corporation, product or service.” Daniel Boorstin (Historian) • “You now have to decide what ‘image’you want for your brand. Image means personality. Products, like people, have personalities, and they can make or break them in the market place.” David Ogilvy (British Advertising Executive) Image-Oriented Advertising

15. A teen admires a particular brand, image, or lifestyle. • For example, iPhones and iTunes • A new product is paired with that brand or lifestyle. • Ads for a new energy drink show teens listening to their iPods while enjoying the drink. • The teen comes to equate the product with the brand. • The energy drink seems to go with iPhones and iTunes. + + ? Buzz-Cola Image-Oriented Advertising

16. People desire consistency. • People prefer a state of harmony among their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors. • Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort. • The magnitude of dissonance • The degree of psychological discomfort depends on the centrality of the attitudes. • Greater attitude salience results in greater dissonance. • People are motivated to restore consistency. Psychological Consistency

17. A child admires Popeye. • The child doesn’t like to eat spinach. • Popeye is positively associated with spinach. • This is a cognitively imbalanced state, which should motivate the child to change one of the associations. + + - Parenting and Consistency Theory

18. Balanced psychological states • Any combination of even minus signs, or all plus signs is psychologically comfortable. - - + + + + - - - - + + • Unbalanced psychological states • Any combination of odd minus signs, or all minus signs is psychologically uncomfortable. - - - - + + + + Balanced Vs. Imbalanced States - - + +

19. Denial: ignoring the inconsistency • Bolstering: adding rationalizations • Differentiation: distinguishing between the conflicting and non-conflicting elements • Transcendence: looking at the larger picture • Modifying attitudes: changing one or more associations • Communicating: convincing others one is being consistent Methods of Maintaining Consistency

20. People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self-concept . • People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self-concept. • Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self-concept causes dissonance. • Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse.” • The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. Cognitive Dissonance

21. Cognitive dissonance in action

22. Lyle, a commuter, buys a large, 4 X 4, SUV. • Soon afterward, the price of gasoline soars. • Every time he fills up the tank, he experiences dissonance. - + + Dissonance in Action

23. Some ways Lyle could reduce his dissonance include: • Convince himself the “gas guzzler” would also be safer in a crash. • Take up off-road sports to justify the vehicle’s other capabilities. • Coach a soccer team or little league team to justify having all those seats. • Sell or trade-in the car at a loss and chalk it up to “experience.” Dissonance in Action

24. Election 2008 and PUMAs • Voters who backed Hillary Clinton experienced dissonance when Obama won. • They wanted a female to become president • They also wanted an African-American to become president - + + Dissonance in action

25. Free choice paradigm • the more free choice one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer. • Belief disconfirmation • Exposure to information contrary to strongly held beliefs may increase adherence to those beliefs (e.g., stubbornness). • Induced compliance • When a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is aroused. • The person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice.” • Effort justification • The greater the effort or sacrifice involved, the greater the dissonance. The Magnitude of Dissonance

26. Rationalizing • which is not the same as being rational. • Selective exposure • Paying attention only to information that supports the choice made. • Avoiding information that is inconsistent with the choice made. • Polarization of alternatives • Exaggerating the differences between the alternatives once the choice is made. • Any of the strategies for maintaining cognitive consistency • Denial • Bolstering • Differentiation • Transcendence • Modifying one or more cognitions • Communicating Ways of Reducing Dissonance

27. Also known as “reverse psychology” • Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom produces a defensive reaction. • Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make it even more attractive. • Examples: • A pushy salesperson may drive customers away. • When restrictions are placed on firearms, firearm sales increase dramatically before the ban takes effect. • A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms. Psychological Reactance

28. Playing “Devil’s Advocate”: Advocating a contrary position shifts one’s attitudes toward the contrary position. • No external incentives should be present. • The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled). • The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud). • The person will internalize the choice to advocate the contrary position. • The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position. Counterattitudinal Advocacy

29. Once we are committed to a course of action, it is hard to turn back. • A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another. • Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose. • Social customs are designed to increase commitments. • Wedding customs • Initiation rituals • Commitments can grow legs. • People add additional justifications for their original decision. Commitment