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Chapter 11

Chapter 11. Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase. Establishment of Rome. Legend of Romulus and Remus Descendants of Aeneas, refugee from Troy who migrated after Greeks destroyed his native land Twins abandoned by evil uncle by flooded Tiber River Romulus became 1 st king

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Chapter 11

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  1. Chapter 11 Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

  2. Establishment of Rome • Legend of Romulus and Remus • Descendants of Aeneas, refugee from Troy who migrated after Greeks destroyed his native land • Twins abandoned by evil uncle by flooded Tiber River • Romulus became 1st king • Rome Founded 753 BCE • Indo-European migrants c. 2000 BCE • Bronze c. 1800 BCE, Iron c. 900 BCE

  3. The Etruscans • Originally from Anatolia • Colonized Roman regions around the Po River valley to the modern Naples to south • Thriving cities • Manufactured bronze and iron goods • Worked gold / silver to jewelry • Build large fleet and trade actively in the W. Mediterranean • Influence the Romans • Arch, monarchy

  4. Etruscan Paintings in Etruscan tombs often represent scenes from daily life. Illustrations in the Tomb of the Leopards in Tarquinia depict musicians playing pipes and lyre during a banquet. 

  5. The Kingdom of Rome • Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE • Built streets, temples, public buildings • Some kings were Etruscan • Geography is benefit • Easy access to Mediterranean from Tiber River • Inland so less invasion

  6. Establishment of the Republic • 509 BCE Romans overthrow last Etruscan king • Roman Forum built • Political, civic center filled w/ temples, public bldgs., for gov’t business • Republican constitution • Gave responsibilities to consuls who wielded the civil and military power • Executive: 2 consuls • Elected to one yr. by patricians • Senate • Members were wealthy patricians w/ extensive political experience • Advise the consuls • Ratified all major decisions

  7. Ruins of the Roman forum, where political leaders conducted public affairs during the era of the republic, still stand today. 

  8. Social Conflict • Patricians (aristocrats) • Plebeians (commoners) • Major class conflict 5th c. BCE • Plebeians threatened to secede from Rome • Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation • Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE • Gained right to hold almost all state offices and the right to have a consul from their ranks • Yet 6-month appointments of dictators when faced w/ civil or military crisis

  9. Expansion of the Republic • Dominated Etruscans • Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE from Etruscans • Generous policy towards people • Expansion via military threat and incentives • Tax exemptions and govern own affairs • Trade privileges: Trade in Rome, and take Roman spouse • Citizenship: Given to some and rose to high positions These policies provided political, military, and diplomatic support for Rome needed to put down revolts and to dominate the Italian peninsula

  10. The Punic Wars • Conflict with Carthage (Phoenician colony) , 264-164 BCE • Hannibal of Carthage • Three major wars over Sicilian grain supply • Struggle for independence • Romans burn Carthage , sell 50,000 people to slavery. annex • Later conflict with declining Hellenistic Empires • Antigonids and Seleucid empires • Entrusted them to allies in region • Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE Hannibal’s army of elephants crossing the Alps in 2nd Punic War

  11. Hannibal

  12. Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems • Wealth and power brought on by expansion • It also led to unequal land distribution • Perennial problem (just like China,Greece) causing political and social tension • Development of large latifundia: enormous plantations • Unfair competition for smaller landholders • The wealth of the empire enriched a few, but left the small farmers into poverty

  13. The Roman Empire to 146 BCE

  14. The Gracchi Brothers • Tiberius and Gaius- Social Reformers • Attempted to limit conquered land that an individual could hold • Lands exceeding limit would be redistributed to smaller farmers • Like Wang Mang of China in Han dynasty • Assassinated b/c of radical ideas that threaten patrician class • Leads to Roman civil war • Development of private armies made up of landless peasants • Gaius Marius (with reformers who wanted to redistribute land) • Lucius Cornelius Sulla (allied w/ conservatice and ariistocrats)

  15. Civil War • 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome • After death of Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla seizes Rome • 83 BCE Reign of terror follows • Slaughtered enemies • Posted lists naming certain individuals as “enemies of the state” • 10,000 individuals murders • Sulla weakened the influence of the lower classes

  16. Julius Caesar • Nephew of Marius • Escapes Sulla’s terror • Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad • Rises to popularity • Sponsors public spectacles-gladiatorial games, victories in Gaul • Attacks Rome 49 BCE • Conservative leaders sought to get him out of power • He turns his army toward Rome-”Crossing the Rubicon” • Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE Caesar crossing the Rubicon

  17. Caesar’s Policies • Centralized military • Governance under personal control • Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies • Major building projects to reduce urban unemployment • Extended citizenship to provinces • Senators assassinated Caesar in 44 BCE in Roman forum • Another 13 years of conflict • Ends with Octavian defeating the others. 1798, artist Vincenzo Carmuccini

  18. Augustus • Civil conflict follows death of Caesar • Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra at Battle of Actium • Takes title Augustus 27 BCE • Title given by Senate • It denotes the divine or semi-devine nature of its holder

  19. Augustus Likely dating from about 20 B.C.E., this statue has become symbolic of the emerging Roman Empire. Commemorating a major Roman military victory, it shows Augustus as imperator, or military commander, with his right arm extended as if he were addressing his troops. According to some scholars, his barefoot posture suggests divinity. So does the small figure of Cupid riding a dolphin at the base, for Cupid was the son of the Roman goddess Venus and serves to link Augustus to this much beloved deity.

  20. Augustus’ Administration • Empire takes root w/ him • He creates a “monarchy disguised as a republic” • Ruled by centralizing political, military power with him • Also includes republican offices & gov’t and Roman elite • Took vast power for himself • Stabilized empire • Reorganizing army w/ commanders loyal to him • Placed individuals loyal to him in important positions • Death in 14 CE “I found Rome of bricks; I leave it to you of marble.” Augustus

  21. Expansion and Integration of Empire • Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas • Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain, Egypt even Kush • Stimulated the development of local economies and state • Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources • Now have access to tin, wheat, olives, grapes • Developed infrastructure, cities emerge • Ex. Paris, Lyon, Cologne, Mainz, London, Toledo Roman expansion depended on well-equipped and highly disciplined military forces. In this detail from Trajan's Column, troops assume the siege formation known as the testudo (the “tortoise”) by surrounding themselves with their shields to deflect defenders' missiles while approaching city walls.

  22. The Roman Empire, c. 117 CE

  23. Pax Romana: “Roman Peace” • 27-250 CE • Facilitated trade, communication throughout region from Mesopotamia to the Atlantic Ocean • Roman Roads • “All roads lead to Rome” • 50,000 miles • Curbs, drainage, milestones • Postal service

  24. Ephesus Roman engineers built paved roads far from home. This road served as the main street through the bustling city of Ephesus in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).

  25. Ms. Cain in Ephesus

  26. Roman Law • Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE • Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule • Roman law shaped Mediterranean and European society long after empire disappeared • Innocent until proven guilty • Right to challenge accusers in court • Permitted judges to set aside inequitable or unfair laws

  27. Commercial Agriculture and Trade • Latifundia: focused on production for export • Ex. Grain in N.Africa, Egypt, Sicily sent to large cities throughout empire • Regional specialization increases • Greece-olives, vines • Syria – fruits, nuts, wool fabrics • Gaul – grain, supplied copper, cultivation of vines • Spain – wine, olive oil, horses • Italy – pottery, glassware, bronze goods • Integration of Empire-wide economy • Mediterranean Sea: Mare Nostrum, “our sea” • Vigorous trade • Roman legions kept seas free from pirates From the days of the republic, residents of Rome consumed subsidized grain imported from distant territories. In this painting from a tomb, workers load grain onto a boat at the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber River, for transport upriver to the city of Rome. 

  28. The City of Rome • Cash flow all flows back to Rome • Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce • Massive construction projects • Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts • Pantheon, Trajan’s Column • Technology: concrete • Saw rapid urban growth in Rome as well as throughout empire

  29. Trajan’s Column • Portrays Trajan’s military campaigns in Dacia • Scene unfolds continuously • Winds 23 times up

  30. Aqueducts Roman aqueducts were impressive products of Roman engineering. Many survive to the present day. This one carried water to the city of Nemausus in Gaul (modern Nîmes in France). The water flowed through a trough supported by the top layer of arches.

  31. Roman Attractions • Underground sewage and public baths • Carry away waste • Baths featuring hot, cold rooms, swimming pools, gymnasium • Circus Maximus • 250,000 spectators fro chariot racing • Coloseum • Opened 80 CE w/ seating for 50,000 people • Gladitorial Games

  32. Ephesus-Bathroom

  33. Family and Society • Consisted of the entire household • Includes slaves, free servants, close relatives • Pater Familias: “father of the family” • Eldest male ruled household • Right to arrange marriages, sell children into slavery, determine work or duty children performed • Women supervised domestic affairs and had influence w/in family • Select marriage for offspring • Manages finances sometimes • Women not allowed to inherit property • Rarely enforced

  34. Wealth and Social Change • Newly rich challenge aristocracy • Merchants, landowners, construction contractors • Built palatial houses w/ formal gardens (villa) • Threw lavish banquets • Boiled ostrich, parrot-tongue pie, tree fungus served in a sauce of fish fat, jellyfish, and eggs • Yet poor class increasing in size • They feast on porridge, vegetables • Supplement w/ eggs, fish, sausage, meat • Sometimes riot to express dissatisfaction • Distraction: “Bread and Circuses” • Gov’t subsidized grain and held public entertainment

  35. Slavery • 2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population • Could be sold, arrange their family affairs, punish them, or execute them • Customary manumission at age 30 • Reward for longterm service, the owner frees them at 30 • Agricultural work, quarries, mines • Harsh conditions • Chain labor • In cities • Males were servants, laborers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, business agents for owners • Female slaves work in cities • Became domestic servants • Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE • Assembled an army of 70,000 slaves • Romans dispatched eight legions-40,000 well-equipped, veteran troops to stop revolt A relief carving on a Roman monument depicts some slaves serving guests at a banquet (above), while others work in the kitchen (below). What does this carving suggest about the roles of slaves in Roman society?

  36. Roman Deities • Polytheistic • Major gods • Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Pluto • Tutelary deities: gods who look after the welfare of individual families • Absorption of gods from other cultures • Juno and Minerva from Etruscans

  37. Cicero and Stoicism • Stoicism: Identified a set of universal moral standards based on nature and reason • Marcus TulliusCicero (106-46 BCE) • Major orator, writer • Letters, treatises emphasize the individual’s duty to live in accordance with nature and reason • Pursuit of justice is the individual’s highest public duty • Scorned people who accumulated wealth through immoral, unjust means • Helped establish Stoicism as the most prominent moral philosophy of Rome • Influenced by Greek thought b/c studied there • Drew heavily from Stoic’s moral and ethical teachings A wall painting of the fourth century c.e. from a Christian catacomb depicts a group of pagan students gathered around their teacher, who presents a lesson in anatomy with the aid of a cadaver. This scene reflects the influence of Greek scientific and medical studies in the Roman empire. 

  38. Religions of Salvation: Mithraism • Mithras was from Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light • Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline so very popular w/ Roman military • Women not admitted into cult • Appealed to military This mithraeum—a shrine to the god Mithras—survives beneath the church of San Clemente in Rome. Benches accommodated worshipers. The sculpture on the altar depicts Mithras sacrificing a bull to the god Apollo. 

  39. Religion of Salvation: Cult of Isis • Most popular religion of salvation before Christianity. • Benevolent and protective deity who nurtured worshipers and helped them cope w/ stresses of life • Women admitted

  40. Judaism in Early Rome • Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures • Refusal to recognize state gods • Repeated Jewish rebellions • Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in Jewish Wars (66-70 CE) • Destroy the Temple of Solomon and begins the Jewish Diaspora (dispersal) • Approximately ½ million killed during rebellion • Centuries of exile • Statelessness doesn’t end until creation of Israel in 1948 "The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem" by Nicolas Poussin (1637)

  41. Roman Triumph of Jerusalem On the Arch of Titus in Rome showing a menorah and other vessels from Jerusalem

  42. Masada • In the Judean desert overlooking the Dead Sea. • The last stand for the Jewish army against the Romans in 73 CE • Built as a palace complex by Herod the Great, 37-4 BCE • The camps, fortifications, and attack ramp constitute the most complete Roman siege works surviving today

  43. Siege of Masada • According to Josephus, the historian of the Jewish-Roman Wars, all 960 Jewish inhabitants were convinced to commit suicide instead of submit • Only 2 women and 5 children were found alive

  44. The Essenes Another Jewish sect 1st century BCE formed the Messianic Jewish Cult Admitted members by baptism in water Ascetic lifestyle: strict moral code Looked for a savior who would lead them out of Roman rule and allow them to practice their faith w/out interference The Dead Sea Scrolls: Collection of 900 Essene writings found in 1947 by shepherds near the Dead Sea. Explain the beliefs of the Essenes. Oldest known surviving documents of biblical and extra-biblical text.

  45. Jesus of Nazareth • Born 4BCE, during time of high tensions b/n Jews and Roman leaders • Jewish teacher • Moral code, reputation for miracle-working • Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus • “Kingdom of God” sounded like a threat to Roman rule in Palestine.”

  46. Jesus’ Early Followers • Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature • Title Christ: “Anointed One” • Teachings recorded in the Gospels of the New Testament of his life, letters • Jews’ Hebrew scriptures, Old Testament, were combined to create Bible

  47. Paul of Tarsus • Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles • Wrote influential letters, the Epistles, to believers • Intensive travel along the roads and sea lanes to promote Christianity and seek converts Conversion of St. Paul by Michelangelo

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