The Art of Fiction

1. The Art of Fiction “Fiction is prose text in the form of a story that is primarily a product of human imagination” (Soles 5).

2. Forms of Fiction • Fiction comes in many forms: • Short stories • Novellas • Novels • Epistolary tales • Parables and Fables • Anecdotes • Jokes

3. Evaluating Fiction • Aristotle, a famous scholar from ancient Greece, in his Poetics formed certain theories of evaluating literature. Some ideas that have developed from his work into aesthetic principles are: • That the best works of literature have no elements that are extraneous to the communication of the piece’s message. • That the use of the elements be manipulated to best convey that piece’s message • In other words, we expect works of literature to be unified.

4. Theme • Most works of fiction should tell a story of some sort, bringing together a sequence of events with an underlying meaning or message. • This underlying message, as I’m sure you know by now, is called the theme, and it is just as important in the study of literature as it is in film.

5. Definition of Theme • We’ll use “the moral or lesson that the reader learns and can apply to his or her own life” as the definition of theme.

6. More Elements to Consider • Elements of Fiction • Plot • Character • Point of View • Setting • Style/Figurative Language

7. Plot • Plot is the sequence of events in a story and their relation to one another • Answers whathappened and why • Resolves questions brought up within the work—Poe’s “single effect”

8. Freytag’s Pyramid • A plot will present a problem or conflict that will need to be resolved by its end. • The story provides necessary background information at the beginning, exposition, and then increase the dramatic tension with various plot complications. • As the action rises to its climax, the point of highest tension, the audience anticipates the resolution. Barbara F. McManus, professor of classics emerita at the College of New Rochelle, has created an alternate diagram of the pyramid

9. Character • Characters are the people or creatures who move and live in the plot. • Protagonist refers to the fiction’s main character • Antagonist refers to the character who opposes the protagonist • Characters may be fully developed (round) or stereotypically shallow (flat) • They may be dynamic (changing) or static

10. Significant Ways of Providing Characterization • Personality • Health • Physical Description • History • Motivation • Plausible actions • Consistent

11. Point of View • The point of view describes how a piece of fiction is revealed to the audience, from whose or what perspective it is revealed. • The narrator (like a poem’s speaker) relays the events of the story to the audience

12. Types of Narration • Third Person: narrator is not involved • Omniscient: all-knowing • Limited omniscient: restricts the narration to one character’s or to just a few characters’ understanding. • Objective: No access to the thoughts of any character • First-person: narrator is a character involved in the plot in some way • Unreliable • Naïve • Stream-of-consciousness: Reader is deposited into the mind of one character

13. Setting • Setting can be defined as the time and place where a story occurs. Setting is important because it provides the context of the story. • Settings can provide mood or tone • Settings can be symbolic

14. Style • Style refers to the manipulation of language and includes the following categorical components: • Diction • Syntax • Figurative Language

15. Diction • Diction refers to the word choices that the writer has made. • Writers choose words based on both connotative and denotative meanings. • They might select a word that has a double meaning to add significance to their ideas • They might select a word whose etymology suggests another or deeper meaning than a synonymous word. • They might select an unusual form of a word to illustrate a geographical region or a cultural difference between characters.

16. Syntax • Syntax refers to both the way the sentences are constructed and they way they are put together. • Writers might use short simple sentences • Some may use lengthy complicated ones • Some may mix both kinds of sentences, depending on the meaning they are trying to evoke.

17. Figurative Language • Figurative language can be described as the “intentional departure from the normal order, construction, or meaning of words in order to gain strength and freshness of expression, to create a pictorial effect, to describe by analogy, or to discover and illustrate similarities in otherwise dissimilar things” (202), according to C. Hugh Holman and William Harmon in their A Handbook to Literature.

18. Types of Figurative Language • There are many different types of language use, or devices, that can be considered figurative language: • Hyperbole • Imagery • Irony • Personification • Similes and Metaphors • Symbolism

19. Hyperbole • Hyperbole is intentional exaggeration for an intended effect, with the understanding that the reader is not meant to believe the passage literally. • Example: A student might say to a classmate on the way to lunch that,”I’m so hungry I’m starving to death.” The listening student can probably glean from the context—that the class seemed long, that the speaking student does not seem emaciated—that the student is not in imminent danger of dying but that he or she was merely dramatizing the idea that “Hey, I’m really hungry.”

20. Imagery • For our purposes, imagery is a word or set of words that create a resonance upon one or more of your five senses. • Consider the following use of imagery from Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher”: • I looked upon the scene before me—upon the mere house, and the simple landscape features of the domain—upon the bleak walls—upon the vacant eye-like windows—upon a few rank sedges—and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees—with an utter depression of soul which I can compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of the reveler upon opium—the bitter lapse into every-day life—the hideous dropping off of the veil.

21. Irony • This is perhaps the most misunderstood term in the literary pantheon; even English teachers debate over what is or is not irony. • Various Types of irony: • Verbal • Dramatic • Tragic

22. Verbal Irony • Verbal irony can be understood as words that evoke a meaning opposite to what they suggest literally. • An example of verbal irony occurs in Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal,” when he ironically suggests that the poverty in Ireland can be solved by having the wealthy English purchase Irish babies from the poor to eat. • Take link to Project Gutenberg's version of The Modest Proposal at ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext97/mdprp10.txt

23. Dramatic Irony • Dramatic irony is when the audience knows or understands something more than a character or characters in the work. • In Hamlet, for example, the audience knows that Hamlet is trying to fake metal illness to avoid having his investigation into his father’s murder exposed. As Claudius is not aware of this, he begins his own investigation into the cause of Hamlet’s psychosis.

24. Tragic Irony • Tragic irony is when the character uses words that mean differently for the character than the audience or other characters, usually with the meaning that the character doesn’t understand being a dark negative one. • Instances of these uses of irony are often contained entirely within a text, but there can also be instances where the tragic irony is not intended but is caused by cultural circumstances. For example, in Sidewalks of New York, a film released in November 2001 although it was originally slated for a September 2001, a character mentions than nothing ever happens in New York. Given the World Trade Center tragedy of 11 September 2001, the verbal irony becomes tragic.

25. More Clarification on Irony • Generally, for something to be ironic it must be more than an unexpected or “twist” occurrence. The writer, in the case of endings, for example, should have taken pains to set up the exact opposite expectation from the one that occurs.

26. “Ironic” Mistakes • Many people sometimes mistake poetic justice for irony. This occurs when a character gets his or her “just desserts.” • In the popular song, “Ironic,” most of the examples given that precede the chorus “Isn’t it ironic?” Don’t you think?” are not. Someone afraid to die who gets killed in a plane crash isn’t an example of irony, just possible an example of tragedy (or Murphy’s Law).

27. Personification • Personification occurs when a writer give human characteristics to an inanimate object. • The Little Engine That Could is a children’s story that depends upon personification. • Anthropomorphism occurs when a writer gives human characteristics or motivations to animals or other living creatures. • Bambi is an anthropomorphism at work.

28. Similes and Metaphors • A simile expresses similarity directly between two objects, usually using “like” or “as.” • A metaphor expresses an implied analogy between two different objects, making the claim that the first has one or more of the qualities of the associated with the second or giving the first the emotional or imaginative qualities of the second. These may use “is” to link the objects.

29. Symbolism • Symbolism happens when a writer uses one object to stand for another. The symbol can be a word, phrase, or idea that contains both its literal meaning and some deeper more complex meaning. • Symbols may be universal, or accepted by all people educated within a certain culture. • For example, the bald eagle can be used to symbolize the United States of America. • Symbols may also be contextual, or have their meanings determined by the context of the work in which they appear. • For example, in the film A Civil Action, water becomes symbolic of life, truth, and honesty.

30. Questions for Analysis • In Literature and Ourselves, Gloria Henderson, William Day, and Sandra Waller identify some key questions to help readers determine how the elements of fiction are being used or manipulated by writers (12-13). • The following slides give you those questions by element. • Questions in brown are my additions.

31. Plot Questions • What is the conflict of the story? Where do you first realize that there is a conflict? • Can you list the steps in the development of the conflict? • Where does the conflict reach a climax? • What is the resolution of the conflict? • Is that resolution satisfying to you? Why or why not?

32. Character Questions • Are the characters believable? Why or why not? • How are the characters revealed through what the author says about them, through what the other characters say about them, and/or through what they say and do? • Which characters are round? Which are flat? Does their development/lack of development affect the success of the story, and if so, in what way(s)? • Do any of the characters develop or change in the course of the story? How do these changes affect the story?

33. Point of View Questions • What is the point of view of the story? • If it is first person or third person limited, through which character do readers see the story? Is the character a reliable or an unreliable narrator? How does his or her personality affect the perception of the other characters and of the action? • Could the story be told as effectively from another point of view? If so, how and why? If not, why not?

34. Setting Questions • Where and when does the story take place? How does the author let the readers know the time and place? • Could the story take place as effectively in any other time or place? • Is there anything unique about that setting, culturally or psychologically? Anything symbolic?

35. Style Questions • Diction: What kind of diction does the write use? Can you describe it? Are the words easy to recognize or obscure? Is there a lot of technical jargon or represented accents? • Syntax: What kind of syntax is used? Could the sentences be described as simple or complex? Are the language and sentence structure dictated by the point of view? If so, how?

36. Style Questions, continued • Figurative language: • Are there any instances of hyperbole? If so, what affect do they have upon the story? • What kind of imagery does the author use, and which of your five senses do they resonate upon? • Does the language seem poetic? • What kind of irony, if any, is evoked in the text?

37. Style Questions, continued • Figurative language, continued: • Can you examine any instances of personification, similes or metaphors to see if they give any clues about the characters or the plot events? • Are there any symbols used in the piece? Are they universally accepted or are they contextual? What do they represent and how do they enrich the story’s meaning? • What is the tone or mood of the story? How is that effect created?

38. Works Cited • Charters, Ann. The Story and Its Writer. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003. • Henderson, Gloria, and William Day and Sandra Waller. Literature and Ourselves. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1994. • Holman, C. Hugh and William Harmon, A Handbook to Literature. 5th Edition. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986. • Soles, Derek. The Prentice Hall Pocket Guide to Understanding Literature. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002.