Chapter 2:

1. Chapter 2: Doing Sociology: Research Methods

2. What to Expect in This Chapter... • What are Research Methods? • Activities Comprising the Research Process • Define the Problem • Review Previous Research • Develop Hypotheses • Determine the Research Design • Define the Sample and Collect Data • Analyze the Data • Prepare the Report • How to Read A table

3. What are Research Methods? • Research methods is the term used to refer to a series of activities that allow the researcher to draw conclusions about the world with reasonable certainty and accuracy. • The activities involved are also referred to collectively as the research process.

4. Activities Comprising the Research Process 7. Prepare the Research Report 6. Analyze the Data 5. Define the Sample/Collect Data 4. Determine Research Design 3. Develop Hypotheses 2. Review Previous Research 1. Define the Problem

5. 1. Defining the Problem • The first step in defining the problem is identifying the general question you want to answer • For example, you might want to know if drugs are responsible for the decline of morality in this country • The second step involves stating your question so that it can be measured empirically • You might then phrase your question, “Does drug use cause one to commit crime?” • The third step typically involves operationalizing the concepts you are using • This will involve specifying what you mean by “drug use” and “crime”

6. 2. Review Previous Research • It will be rare that you will identify a research problem that has not previously been researched • By looking at what other researchers have done, you can get some ideas about how to conduct your own research • Generally, you can find this research in scholarly journals and books and monographs in college and university libraries

7. 3. Develop Hypotheses • An hypothesis is “...a testable statement about the relationship between two or more empirical variables.” • A variable is “...anything that can change” • An independent variable causes change to occur in another variable • A dependent variable is influenced by the independent variable

8. 3a. Statements of Causality and Association • Statement of causality—declares that something causes something else • Statement of association—declares that two variables are related but one does not necessarily cause the other Drug Use Crime Drug Use Crime Unknown Third Variable

9. 4. Determine the Research Design... Participant Observation Survey Experiments Secondary Analysis

10. 4a The Survey • The survey involves questioning a population or sample to reveal certain facts about themselves • The survey is usually conducted with the use of a questionnaire or interview • The structured interview uses preset questions and produces very uniform and replicable responses • The open-ended interview allows more freedom for both respondent and interviewer in exploring a topic thoroughly

11. 4b Participant Observation • Participant observation involves going into the “field” and spending considerable time interacting with the people one is studying • It is generally used to study small groups or communities over an extended period of time • The researcher must establish trust and honesty in his or her relationships with the people being studied • Results cannot be replicated easily, but it can provide much more detailed information

12. 4c. The Experiment • The experiment is a design that carefully controls the variables being studied • The experiment is the most precise research design available to sociologists (or any other scientist) • The types of things that most sociologists are interested in do not lend themselves to this research design, however

13. 4d. Secondary Analysis • Secondary analysis involves making use of data that have been previously collected by others • There are several sources of secondary data, including the U.S. Census Bureau, the FBI, Department of Labor and others

15. 5. Define Sample /Collect Data • A sample is a subset of a population that is chosen for study • The process by which this subset of the population is chosen is called sampling • The nature of the population and the research will determine what type of sample the researcher will use

16. Types of Samples

17. Avoiding Researcher Bias • Researcher bias occurs when the researcher tends to ignore data which go against his or her hypotheses • This can be prevented using one or more of the following strategies • Allowing other researchers access to one’s data for alternative interpretation • Use of blind investigators who do not know if a subject is part of an experimental or control group • Use of double blind investigators who know neither the nature of the subjects, or of the hypotheses being tested

18. 6. Analyzing the Data • Analysis of data is the process by which large and complicated collections of data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn • Sociologists use a variety of statistics to assist in this process • Two issues are especially important in data analysis: • Validity—the data accurately represent the reality being tested • Reliability—the findings can be repeated

19. 7. Prepare the Research Report • Sociological research is generally reported in one or more of the following ways: • Papers presented at professional meetings • Published in technical or scholarly journals • Published as books or monographs • Published as final reports to funding agencies