ICT in K -12 E ducation: What [ little ] we know ! Tracey Burns Charles Ungerleider

1. ICT in K-12 Education: What [little] we know!Tracey BurnsCharles Ungerleider Information and Communication Technologies in Elementary and Secondary Education: A State of the Art Review

2. Introduction • Common belief that technology can improve the rate, quality, amount, and effectiveness of learning (Henchey, 2001). • 88 per cent of elementary and 97 per cent of secondary school students attend a school that has Internet access for instructional purposes (PCEIP). • “To date, there is much promise but less substance, especially long-term evidence, regarding the effective use of technology for learning” (Abrami, 2001) • Critical that the available research be assembled, reviewed, and critiqued.

3. Ourfocus: two major areas: • Efficacy of ICTs for achievement, motivation, and metacognitive learning. • Role of ICTs for instruction in content areas.

4. Efficacy of ICTs: Attitudes • Children who are exposed to computers have a more positive attitude towards computers than those who are not (Clark, 1997; Dawes et al., 2000; Hennessy, 2000; Kirkman, 1993; Levine et al., 1998; Miyashita, 1994; Pedretti et al., 1998; Soyibo et al., 2000; Woodrow, 1994; although see Renaud, 1998). • Men and boys still have a higher computer self-efficacy and more positive attitudes towards computers than girls and women (see Whitley's (1997) meta-analysis of over 80 studies; also Inkpen, 1997; Nelson et al., 1997; although cf. King, Bond, and Blandford, 2002).

5. Achievement orientation:large-scale surveys • Canada: no relationship between the presence of a computer in the classroom and the achievement of grade 3 students (Tremblay, et al., 2001). • United States: National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) tests. • Reading: students who used computers in the classroom at least once each week do not perform better on the NAEP reading test than do those who use computers less than once a week (Johnson, 2000). • Mathematics: drill and practice programs negatively related to academic achievement while simulations and applications positively related to academic achievement (for 8th graders) (Wenglinsky, 1997)

6. Achievement orientation:experimental work • Common flaws: • lack of a control group, • nonrandomized designs, • raters that are not blind to the experimental manipulation, and/or • interpretations that are unwarranted by the data. • Example: longitudinal evidence of the effectiveness of technology-enhanced instruction in a secondary science environment (Pedretti et al., 1998; Woodrow et al., 2001) • Two major shortcomings: lack of a control group and a non-random selection of the students interviewed.

7. Motivation • Long-standing argument thatthe use of computers for instructional purposes increases motivation in children (Trentin, 1996, Laferrière et al., 1999, Howland et al., 1997, Barak et al., 2000, Olsen-Rando, 1994, Hennessy, 2000). • Noneof these projects measured the motivation of a control group of students that did not use computers. • Studies with control groups offer conflicting results: • Group work with the use of a computer does not by itself increase learning or satisfaction, but rather aspects of social facilitation and the collaboration process are important (Svensson, 2000, Orth et al., 1994, Ocker et al., 1999).

8. Metacognitive skills • Knowledge about the self, the task, and strategies for learning. • Memory and general problem solving skills play a role in use of metacognitive resources. • Development and implementation of successful metacognitive skills can significantly influence learning and scholastic performance.

9. Metacognitive Skills • Co-operative learning on computers is argued to have implications for motivation, self-esteem, and social behaviours. However, group effectiveness highly complex and influenced by such factors as: • Degree of student autonomy (Kinzie, 1992) • High levels of autonomy on difficult tasks detrimental to the performance of younger children (Klein et al., 2000, Reed et al., 1997, and Schacter et al., 1998). • However greater autonomy can be positive with older students (Adnanes and Ronning, 1998)

10. Metacognitive Skills • expectations of success as a function of gender (Joiner et al., 1998) • Group work with similar others facilitated the performance of girls who had high expectations of success. • Group work with similar others had the reverse effect for girls with low expectations of success. • The presence of others had no effect on the performance of boys.

11. ICTs in content areas: Language Arts • Kindergarten children given a reading and spelling program dramatically improved their performance relative to peers not given access to the same program (van Daal et al., 2000). • Writing performance of students with high computer access compared to students with low computer access over a three year period. Children in the high access group did better on all measures of writing ability, wrote more, and were more likely to actively edit their compositions than children in the low access condition (Owston, 1997).

12. ICTs in content areas: Mathematics • Drill & practice programs • No clear picture emerges • Positive effects shown by Christmann et al. (1997), Kulik and Kulik (1991), and Liao (1992). • However, Wenglinsky (1998) argues that drill and practice programs have a negative effect on achievement and are not cost effective: tutoring produces greater gains for less money.

13. ICTs in content areas: Mathematics • Higher-level conceptual programs • Teaching higher-level mathematics concepts (e.g., applications and simulations) to grade eight students has a positive effect on academic achievement (Wenglinsky, 1998).

14. ICTs in content areas: Science: • Use of multimedia technologies in the classroom encourages student enrolment and increases enjoyment. • Use of computer technology to teach chemistry in Grade 8 resulted in better performance and better attitudes towards chemistry than the use of standard instructional recitation hours (Yalcinalp et al., 1995).

15. Review supports only four claims: • Student attitudes toward computers and computer related technologies improve as a consequence of exposure to them. • The use of ICTs for group work can be beneficial if teachers are able to take into account the complex interplay among the age of the students, the kind of task, and the amount of independence allowed. • The use of ICTs for mathematics instruction has a significantly positive effect on teaching high level concepts to students in grade eight or above. • The majority of the research reviewed is contradictory and/or seriously flawed.

16. Further questions: • How are attributions to ICT task performance affected by gender? • How do we reconcile findings from large-scale assessments showing no or negative effects of access to computers with contrasting experimental results? • What is the impact of ICTs on student motivation, and how do we measure it? • Are metacognitive skills being enhanced by ICT learning environments? • What is the role of ICTs in particular subject areas other than mathematics and language arts?

17. Implications for the development of policy • Much of the reviewed research conducted outside of Canada and, thus, does not provide a uniquely pan-Canadian perspective. • There are simply too few studies of sufficiently rigorous design to permit informed policy choices. • This is especially troubling given that the use of ICTs requires significant expenditure of scarce resources.