Biology EOC Review

1. Biology EOC Review

2. Questions 1-13

3. Science Methods • Steps used to solve a problem • Observation • Questioning and stating problems • Hypothesizing • Experimenting – including a control and experimental group IV – independent variable DV – dependent variable • Tables and Graphs • IV on x-axis and DV on y-axis of a graph Ex) Effects of pH on Tadpole Survival IV – pH DV-Number of Tadpoles

4. Theories and laws Section 1.2 Summary – pages 11-18 • In science, a hypothesis that is supported by many separate observations and investigations, usually over a long period of time, becomes a theory. • A theory is an explanation of a natural phenomenon that is supported by a large body of scientific evidence. • In addition to theories, scientists also recognize certain facts of nature, called laws or principles, that are generally known to be true.

5. Section 2.1 Summary – pages 35 - 45 • All the living organisms that inhabit an environment are called biotic factors. • Examples of biotic factors would be grass, trees, fish, birds, insects and worms. • The nonliving parts of an organism’s environment are the abiotic factors. • Examples of abiotic factors include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil.

6. Ecology • Ecology – is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment • Levels of Organization BiosphereBiomesEcosystemCommunityPopulationOrganism • We study an organisms habitat, niche, and trophic level • Populations – are members of the same species living in the same place at the same time with the potential to interbreed Population growth – exponential (J-shape) and logistic (S-Shape) * Limited by factors like disease and competition that are density-dependent or by density-independent factors like natural disaster. * Carrying capacity is seen in logistic growth – the maximum number the environment can support Community Interactions * Competition – intraspecific (same species) or interspecific (diff sp) * Symbiosis – parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism * Succession – both primary (bare rock) and secondary (soil) Ecosystem Level – food chains and webs and matter recycling

7. Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids Section 2.2 Summary – pages 46 - 57 • The pyramid of energy illustrates that the amount of available energy decreases at each succeeding trophic level. Pyramid of Energy 0.1% Consumers Heat 1% Consumers Heat 10% Consumers Heat Heat 100% Producers Parasites, scavengers, and decomposers feed at each level.

8. Water Cycle Condensation Transpiration Precipitation Runoff Evaporation Evaporation Groundwater

9. The Carbon Cycle

10. Ranges of tolerance Section 3.1 Summary – pages 65-69 • The ability of an organism to withstand fluctuations in biotic and abiotic environmental factors is known astolerance. Limits of Tolerance Organisms absent Organisms absent Organisms infrequent Organisms infrequent Greatest number of organisms Zone of Physiological stress Zone of Physiological stress Zone of intolerance Zone of intolerance Optimum range Population Range of tolerance Lower limit Upper limit

11. Freshwater biomes Section 3.2 Summary – pages 70-83 Greatest Greatestspeciesdiversity Warmer layer Oxygen and light penetration Colder layer Least

12. How covalent bonds form Section 6.1 Summary – pages 141-151 • A covalent bond holds the two hydrogen atoms together. • A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. It has no overall charge. Water molecule

13. Mixtures and Solutions Section 6.1 Summary – pages 141-151 • A solution is a mixture in which one or moresubstances (solutes) are distributed evenly inanother substance (solvent). • Sugar molecules in a powdered drink mix dissolve easily in water to form a solution.

14. Summary Section 2 – pages 152-156 1. Water is Polar • A polar molecule is a molecule with an unequal distribution of charge; that is, each molecule has a positive end and a negative end. • Water is an example of a polar molecule. • Water can dissolve many ionic compounds, such as salt, and many other polar molecules, such as sugar.

15. Summary Section 2 – pages 152-156 Water is Polar • Water molecules also attract other water molecules. Hydrogen atom • Weak hydrogen bonds are formed between positively charged hydrogen atoms and negatively charged oxygen atoms. Hydrogen atom Oxygen atom

16. 2. Water resists temperature changes Summary Section 2 – pages 152-156 • Water resists changes in temperature. Therefore, water requires more heat to increase its temperature than do most other common liquids.

17. Summary Section 2 – pages 152-156 3. Water expands when it freezes • Water is one of the few substances that expands when it freezes. • Ice is less dense than liquid water so it floats as it forms in a body of water.

18. Questions 14-21

19. Biomolecules

20. Enzymes • An enzymeis a protein that changes the rate of a chemical reaction. • http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.html

21. Enzymes An increase in the concentration, pH and temperature will cause the rate of reaction of the enzyme to speed up.

22. Section 7.1 Summary – pages 171-174 The cell theoryis made up of three main ideas: All organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms. All cells come from preexisting cells.

23. Prokaryotic Cell

24. Eukaryotic Cell

25. Chapter Assessment Transport proteins form the selectively permeable membrane and move needed substances or waste materials through the plasma membrane.

28. Questions 22.27

29. The Cell Cycle Section 8.2 Summary – pages 201 - 210 • The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and division of a cell. • The majority of a cell’s life is spent in the growth period known as interphase. • Following interphase, a cell enters its period of nuclear division called mitosis. • Following mitosis, cytokinesisoccurs which is when the cytoplasm divides, separating the two daughter cells. Interphase Mitosis cytokinesis

30. Mitosis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase • Chromatin coils • Spindle fibers form • Nuclear envelope disappears • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres • Chromosomes move to the equator • Centromeres split • Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell • Two distinct daughter cells are formed • Nuclear membrane reforms • Cells separate as the cell cycle proceeds into the next interphase

31. Mendel’s Laws The law of segregation states that every individual has two alleles of each gene and when gametes are produced, each gamete receives one of these alleles. Thelaw of independent assortmentstates that genes for different traits—for example, seed shape and seed color—are inherited independently of each other.

32. Prophase I: • Chromatin coils • Spindle fibers form • Nuclear envelope disappears • Crossing over occurs • Metaphase I: • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres • Homologous chromosomes move to the equator • Anaphase I: • Chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell • Telophase I: • Two distinct daughter cells are formed • Nuclear membrane reforms • Cells immediately go into Meiosis II

33. Anaphase II: • Centromeres split • Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell • Telophase II: • 4 haploid cells are formed • Nuclear membrane reforms • Cells separate • Prophase II: • Chromatin coils • Spindle fibers form • Nuclear envelope disappears • Metaphase II: • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres • Chromosomes move to the equator

34. Questions 28-37

35. Crossing Over Diagram

36. What is Meiosis? This pattern of reproduction, involving the production and subsequent fusion of haploid sex cells, is called sexual reproduction. Section 10.2 Summary – pages 263-273 Haploid gametes (n=23) Meiosis Sperm Cell Meiosis Multicellular diploid adults (2n=46) Egg Cell Fertilization Diploid zygote (2n=46) Mitosis and Development

37. Inheritance Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 • Mendel concluded that each organism has two factors that control each of its traits. • We now know that these factors are genes and that they are located on chromosomes • Genes exist in alternative forms. We call these different gene forms alleles. • Mendel called the observed trait dominant and the trait that disappeared recessive. T Ttt T t T t

38. Phenotypes and Genotypes Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 • The way an organism looks and behaves is called its phenotype. • The allele combination an organism contains is known as its genotype. • An organism’s genotype can’t always be known by its phenotype • An organism is homozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait are the same. • An organism is heterozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait differ from each other.

39. Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Monohybrid crosses The two kinds of gametes from one parent are listed on top of the square, and the two kinds of gametes from the other parent are listed on the left side. Heterozygous tall parent T t T t T t T T TT Tt t t Tt tt T t Heterozygous tall parent Resulting genotypes: TT, Tt, and tt Resulting phenotypes: 3 tall, 1 short

40. Dihybrid crosses Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262 Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross Gametes from RrYy parent Ry RY rY ry A Punnett square for a dihybrid cross will need to be four boxes on each side for a total of 16 boxes. RRYy RRYY RrYy RrYY RY Rryy RRYy RrYy RRYy Ry Gametes from RrYy parent RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy rY RrYy Rryy rryy rrYy ry

41. Questions 38-39

42. Questions 40-42

43. Questions 43-47

44. Origin of Life on Earth

45. Simple organic molecules formed Section 14.2 Summary – pages 380-385 Scientists hypothesize that two developments must have preceded the appearance of life on Earth. 1. simple organic molecules, or molecules that contain carbon, must have formed. 2. Then these molecules must have become organized into complex organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that are essential to life.

46. Section 14.2 Summary – pages 380-385 A protocell is a large, ordered structure, enclosed by a membrane, that carries out some life activities, such as growth and division. The first forms of life may have been prokaryotic forms that evolved from a protocell. Because Earth’s atmosphere lacked oxygen, scientists have proposed that these organisms were most likely anaerobic. The first autotrophs were probably similar to present-day archaebacteria.

47. Section 14.2 Summary – pages 380-385 The Endosymbiont Theory Complex eukaryotic cells probably evolved from prokaryotic cells. The endosymbiont theory,proposed by American biologist Lynn Margulis in the early 1960s, explains how eukaryotic cells may have arisen. The endosymbiont theory proposes that eukaryotes evolved through a symbiotic relationship between ancient prokaryotes.

48. The endosymbiont theory Section 14.2 Summary – pages 380-385 The cyanobacteria become chloroplasts, no longer able to live on their own. A prokaryote ingested some aerobic bacteria. The aerobes were protected and produced energy for the prokaryote. Some primitive prokaryotes also ingested cyanobacteria, which contain photosynthetic pigments. Over a long time, the aerobes become mitochondria, no longer able to live on their own. Chloroplasts Cyanobacteria Mitochondria Aerobic bacteria Plant cell Prokaryote Animal Cell • Chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes and they reproduce independently of the cells that contain them

49. Section 15.1 Summary – pages 393-403 Anatomy • Structural features with a common evolutionary origin are called homologous structures. • Homologous structures can be similar in arrangement, in function, or in both. Crocodile forelimb Bird wing Whale forelimb

50. Anatomy Section 15.1 Summary – pages 393-403 • The body parts of organisms that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function are called analogous structures. For example, insect and bird wings probably evolved separately when their different ancestors adapted independently to similar ways of life.