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The History and Milestones of European Integration

Explore the historical development and key milestones of European integration from its origins to the present. Delve into the EU institutions, policies, and cooperation in foreign and security affairs.

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The History and Milestones of European Integration

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  1. The History and Milestones of European Integration Dr. Spyros Blavoukos (sblavo@aueb.gr) Assistant Professor Department of International and European Economic Studies Athens University of Economics and Business

  2. Structure of the Presentation • Part I: Historical Development • Origins – Economic and Political Rationale of the European Integration Process • From the European Defense Community (EDC – 1950) to the Treaty of Rome (1957) • Part II: Key Milestones – Deepening and Widening of the European Integration Process • Treaties • Policy Processes • Policy Programs • Part III: EU Institutions • Part IV: Cooperation in Foreign and Security Policy – EU in the Globe

  3. PART I: Historical Development

  4. Historical Background: Political Factors behind European integration • Combating nationalism and the ‘German problem’ • New political map of Europe (East-West) • New international power balance

  5. Historical Background: Economic Factors behind European integration • Bretton Woods institutions (1944) • Economic Restructuring of Europe post WWII: • Marshall Plan (1947) • Aid conditionality: economic cooperation and openness • Interdependence (economic & political)

  6. European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC) (1951) • Why coal and steel? Basic components of military industrial production • Schuman Declaration (9 May 1950) →ECSC - Treaty of Paris (1951) • Institutions: High Authority/ Commission; Council of Ministers; Common Assembly; Court of Justice • Initial success but coal & steel declining importance/ other energy sources

  7. An Alternative Path: the European Defense Community (EDC) • In light of Soviet threat and despite the establishment of NATO (1949), quest for greater defense cooperation • Also, to reintegrate German forces in West-European defense • Pleven plan: European Defense Community agreed by the 6 (1952) • Joint military forces and command (less than a decade after the end of WWII!) • EDC rejected by French National Assembly (1954)  EDC collapse (one year later, West Germany joins NATO) • An alternative path straight to the core of national sovereignty

  8. …to the EEC Rome Treaty (1957) • Back to the original Schuman strategy: political union best achieved via economic integration • Messina (1955): further econ. integration (“united Europe”) • Two Treaties of Rome 1957: • European Economic Community (EEC) • Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community) • EEC: clear rules on trade, guiding principles for social and agricultural policy

  9. The EEC Treaty • Removal of tariffs & quotas  free trade area • Common External Tariff for external imports; basis for Common Commercial Policy  customs union (completed in 1968) • Prohibition of distortion of competition • Measures to promote free movement of persons, services and capital (SM) • Institutions: Commission; Council of Ministers; Assembly; Court of Justice

  10. Part II: Key Milestones – Deepening and Widening of the European Integration Process

  11. Deepening of Integration: Treaty Development • Treaty Development • Rome (1957/ 1958) • Single European Act (1986/ 1987) • Maastricht Treaty (1991/ 1993) • Amsterdam Treaty (1997/ 1999) • Nice Treaty (2001/ 2003) • Constitutional Treaty (2004/ never ratified) • Lisbon Treaty(2007/ 2009) • Is there a pattern? Why?

  12. Deepening of Integration: Policy-Making Processes • Dynamic inter-institutional relationships • New ‘actors in town’ (Heads of Government, national & transnational sectoral interests) • Policy process more varied & complex • More emphasis on efficiency (use of QMV -away from unanimity) & democracy (EP ↑↑↑)

  13. Deepening of Integration: Policies (1/2) • Core: Economic and Related Policies • Internal Market/ Single European Market (‘project 1992’) • EU as a ‘regulatory state’ • Emphasis on product standards; liberalization of national economies; prudential regulation; control against subsidies, etc, • Additional to core: Employment, environment, consumer protection; working conditions • Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) (today 19 members) • BUT: limited involvement in social welfare, education, health • Redistribution through: Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Regional policies (ERDF, Structural and Cohesion Funds)

  14. Deepening of Integration: Policies (2/2) • Other policy areas: • foreign & security • defense; • justice & home affairs • In general, very few areas left without significant EU policies

  15. Widening of the Integration Process: Enlargement • 1st enlargement (1973): DEN, IRE, UK • Mediterranean (1981/86): GR, ESP, POR • EFTAn (1995): AU, FIN, SWE • 10+2 (2004): CY, CZ, EST, HU, LAT, LIT, MAL, POL, SLOVK, SLOVN + BU, RO (2007) • CR (2013) • Total: EU-28 • 6 candidate countries: ALB, ICL, MTNEGRO, SERB, FYROM, TUR • No enlargement for the next five years

  16. http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/index_en.htm

  17. 1STEnlargement (1973) • FRA against UK (1961 and 1967 –French vetoes) (de Gaulle in power): could unsettle FR-GR alliance; ties with US; dilute integration • U-shift: FRA for UK (1969)(Pompidou in power): counterweight to GER; support FRA to opposition to supranationalism; economic gains, UK net contributor • Reasons for British urge to join: UK in decline, Commonwealth and special relation with US under crisis, EC outperforming UK, rising EC political status

  18. Mediterranean enlargement (1981/86) • Concerns about the underdevelopment of the Greek economy • Commission negative Opinion • Still, GR (applied 1974 – accession 1981): underpin democracy; consolidate GR’s west european alliance bonds • SP-POR (applied 1977 – accession 1986) • Decoupling of accession negotiations

  19. EFTAn Enlargement (1995) • EFTA: European Free Trade Association in demise • EFTA unsatisfactory (had to accept rules they could not influence) • EFTA was replaced by EEA in 1994 • End of cold war (neutrality status not an impediment ) • Norway voted against

  20. ‘Bing Bang’: Central and Eastern Europe10+2 (2004/7) • Why? EU seen as provider of soft security protection and for economic benefits • EU enlargement criteria (1993, Copenhagen): • democracy, rule of law, human rights, respect for minorities • functioning market economy, capacity to cope with market competition in EU; • candidate ability to adhere to aims of political, econ. & monetary union • “EU capacity to absorb new members, while maintaining momentum of integration”

  21. Impact of Enlargement on EU • Leads to Treaty reforms, increases in QMV since SEA (1986) • EU institutions grew in size • Institutional and administrative problems (e.g. language) • EU policy outcomes more flexible (OMC; differentiation/ enhanced cooperation; opt outs) • Uploading of additional M/S requirements, preferences, problems • EU global importance

  22. Part III: EU Institutions

  23. Institutional Structure: An Overview • Supranational • Commission • European Parliament • European Court of Justice • European Central Bank • Intergovernmental • Council of Ministers • European Council

  24. The Political System of the EU (1/3) Division of Power Political/Strategic Guidance EUROPEAN COUNCIL (Heads of State and Government) • Executive Branch: COMMISSION • Legislative Branch: COUNCIL OF MINISTERS and the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (co-decision or ‘ordinary’ procedure) • Judicial Branch: EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE

  25. The Political System of the EU: Decision-Making (2/3) Decision-Making in the EU Decision-Making in the Council Simple majority Special majority 55% of M/S 65% of EU population Unanimity • About the EP involvement: • Consultation procedure • Assent procedure • Co-decision

  26. The Political System of the EU: How Democratic Is It? (3/3) • An elite-driven process • The ‘Golden Years’ (1960s-70s): ‘Permissive consensus’ • “Democratic deficit”: bring people in • How? • EP empowerment • More use of majoritarian decision-making • National Parliaments engaged

  27. COMMISSION: Main Features (1/3) • The ‘executive’ branch of government • ‘The Commission proposes, the Council and the EP disposes’ • Main expression of supranational forces in the European integration process • ‘College of Commissioners’ (team spirit / collegial, not individualistic) • Collective responsibility (consensus pursued; voting takes place but no records are available)

  28. COMMISSION: Structure (2/3) • One Commissioner per M/S including the President and the High Representative. • Five year term which may be renewed. • Each Commissioner nominated by his/her member state, but must be acceptable to the President. • The College as a whole must be approved by the EP after individual “hearings”. • Each Commissioner has a portfolio. • Commissioners are not national representatives but should promote “the general interest of the Union” (Art. 17, TEU) • President: from Lisbon Treaty onwards, direct link with EP elections

  29. COMMISSION: Functions (3/3) • Proposer and developer of policies and legislation • Executive functions • Guardian of the legal framework • External representative and negotiator • Mediator and conciliator

  30. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Main Features (1/3) • Main intergovernmental body; the ‘legislative branch’ • Legally, only one Council of Ministers; in practice, different formations or configurations • Council used to meet in over 20 formations; nowadays: • General Affairs; Foreign Affairs; Economic and Financial Affairs (ECOFIN); Justice and Home Affairs; Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs; Competitiveness; Transport, Telecommunications, Energy; Agriculture and Fisheries; Environment; Education, Youth and Culture

  31. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Structure (2/3) • Normally, four or five people support the “inner table team”; in very confidential issues, size may be reduced to “Ministers plus two”, “Ministers plus one”, or, exceptionally, “Ministers and Commission” • Role of the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER). • COREPER I (technical policy and legislative matters, M/S delegations headed by the Deputy Permanent Representative) • COREPER II (more senior and more political, m-s delegations headed by the Permanent Representatives).

  32. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: Functions (3/3) • Policy and law maker: • Shared responsibilities mainly with COM and EP • Two-fold limitations: Council of Ministers acts on the basis of proposals made by the COM ; EP has very important legislative powers • Executive: • through committees composed of national government officials (‘commitology’). • Most obvious and direct Council executive activity in foreign and defense policy areas • Mediator: • national and ideological interests in the Council, • between the Council and the COM and the Council and the EP

  33. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Main Features (1/3) • Present from the beginning (Assembly of the ECSC) but had only an advisory role; • Gradual rise to co-legislator role (power to block legislative proposals under the co-decision process) • Indirect role: • EU budget • European Council’s proposal of a candidate for COM President must be made taking into account the elections to the EP. • The Commissioners-designate shall be subject as a body to an EP vote of consent • The EP can dismiss the College – but not individual Commissioners – by carrying a motion of censure by a 2/3 majority of the votes.

  34. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Structure and Functioning(2/3) Structure Functioning Multi-site problem: Brussels, Strasbourg, Luxembourg (‘moving circus’ critique) EP Committees Important role of ‘rapporteur’ • Very loosely organized transnational federations grouped around general principles (EPP, PES, ELDR) → political groups in the EP

  35. EP ELECTIONS • 1979 the first direct elections. • different electoral systems, constituency structure, eligibility for election and in the number of citizens MEPs represent. • Low voter turnout

  36. EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE (ECJ) • The Court of Justice of the European Union consists of three courts: • the Court of Justice, • the General Court (formerly called the Court of First Instance) • the European Union Civil Service Tribunal (just deals with internal EU staffing disputes). • All courts located in Luxembourg • Often confusion with the Strasbourg-based European Court of Human Rights (Council of Europe) or the The Hague-based International Court of Justice (UN) • One judge per M/S

  37. ECJ: Impact and influence • Clarification and strengthening of EU law • Extension of EU policy competence (internal market). • Clarification of powers and functioning of the institutions. • Judgments have saved the EU the need to make law in existing areas of competence. • HOWEVER: • Constraints by the existing policy framework • ECJ cannot initiate cases

  38. PART IV: Cooperation in Foreign and Security Policy – EU in the Globe

  39. In Quest for the ‘Single Phone Number’ • Pleven Plan (1950): European Defense Community (EDC) – single European army under a single political authority [failure] • FouchetPlan (1961-2): intergovernmental cooperation in parallel to economic integration (the French view) • European Political Cooperation (1973): • outside Treaty framework • Deliberation, no committing decisions • Emphasis on ‘civilian power Europe

  40. Common Foreign and Security Policy – Maastricht Treaty (1991) • Background (1989-90): • end of Cold War; integration of re-unified Germany in Europe; • Foreign and Security Policy as a corollary of political integration • parallel negotiations on EMU • Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): • one of the three pillars of the TEU • intergovernmental nature: unanimity, no involvement of ECJ and EP • full respect to the political autonomy of FR and UK in the UNSC • Dissolution of ex-Yugoslavia: collapse and paralysis

  41. Amsterdam Treaty (1997) • ‘Constructive Abstention’ • New post: High Representative (Javier Solana) • Integration of ‘Petersberg tasks’ (UN-like peace keeping operations) • Why? Absorption of Western European Union (WEU) and accession of the ‘neutrals’ (AUS, FNL, SWE)

  42. ‘Headline Objective’ (1999/2004) • Cologne and Helsinki Eur. Councils (1999): ‘Headline Objective’ - European Rapid Reaction Force • By 2003, 50,000 to 60,000 personnel, to be deployed within 60 days, sustained for up to one year • St Mallot Summit (1998): Franco-British understanding • Complemented with civilian Headline Goal (police officers, judges, administrators) (Feira, 2000) • Revised (2004) – ‘Headline Goal 2010’: introduces ‘Battle Group concept’ • high readiness forces - 1,500 personnel, to be deployed within 10 days, sustained for up to 30 days (extendible to 120 days with rotation).

  43. EUROPEAN SECURITY STRATEGY (ESS)(2003/8) • Basic security threats and EU international engagement • EU as a global player: • should be ready to share in the responsibility for global security and in building a better world • should develop a shared vision of global challenges and threats • should be more active, more capable, and more coherent • Threats: international terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, regional crises, failed states, organized crime • Mantra of ‘effective multilateralism’ : emphasis on international law, effective international organizations, principles and norms • Collaboration with International Organizations

  44. Lisbon Treaty (2007) • Cooperation still intergovernmental • High Representative: merging of two posts • Commissioner responsible for external affairs and High Representative of CFSP • To bring coherence and increase effectiveness • European External Action Service (EEAS) • Revised list of “Petersberg tasks” • Solidarity clause : support in case of terrorist attacks or humanitarian disasters • Protocol on “Permanent Structured Cooperation”: enables closer cooperation in military and defense issues

  45. Main Actors Involved • Council of Ministers, chaired by HR/VP • Political and Security Committee (PSC): Ambassadors • Political friction with COREPER • EU Military Committee (EUMC): CHODS and Military Representatives – advisory role • Civilian Committee (CivCom): advisory role

  46. How It Works

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