Southeast asia :

1. TRANSITION AMONG THE NAGAS Southeast asia:

3. Myanmar Laos Thailand Cambodia Vietnam Brunei Malaysia Philippines Indonesia East Timor Singapore Countries in southeast asia

4. Mainland Southeast Asia: Cambodia Laos Burma Thailand Vietnam Peninsular Malaysia Maritime Southeast Asia: East Malaysia Brunei Indonesia Philippines Singapore East Timor PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES

5. PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES • Southeast Asia is geographically: • South of China • East of India • West of New Guinea • North of Australia • The region lies on the intersection of geological plates with heavy seismic and volcanic activity.

6. Separation has enhanced cultural diversity and thwarted regional unity. Nevertheless, several Southeast Asian states have become prominent on the global economic map. Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore are designated as economic tigers. Indonesia, with its growth rate of four percent (2009) even in the economic crisis, is an emerging tiger. Vietnam boasts of its new label: baby tiger. In contrast, countries such as Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia lag far behind in both the human condition and regional stability.

7. Naga, in Sanskrit, means serpent. The nagais an aquatic symbol that permeates the daily life of people everywhere in the watery realm of Southeast Asia. The naga appears in art form as a dragon and snake-like creature, and frequently as a mutation of a different being. For instance, Thailand has a sang, a cross between a naga and a singh (lion). The naga form is ubiquitous in Thai and other cosmological representations. The Khmer and numerous other Southeast Asian civilizations are portrayed as emerging from water. In almost everything of significance, the naga symbol asserts itself. NAGAS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

9. The Mekong—“tiger river” or “mother river”— is the twelfth longest river in the world. Originating in the Tibetan Highlands of China’s Qinghai Province, the river flows 2,600 miles (4,184 km) through southwestern China, along the borders of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand, across Cambodia, and down through Vietnam, where it sprawls across the 26,000-square-mile (67,340 km2) Mekong Delta to the South China Sea. One-third of the population of the latter four countries lives in the lower Mekong Basin. MEKONG RIVER

12. The river is an artery of human activity, upstream rapids and waterfalls have prevented any large-scale development for international shipping. Smaller seagoing vessels can travel upstream to Phnom Penh, but travel beyond is limited to local traffic. A bridge connecting Laos to Thailand was constructed in 1994. MEKONG RIVER

13. In 1992, China initiated plans to open the upper reaches of the river to year-round navigation by large cargo ships. China’s primary objective is to facilitate the export of raw materials from its landlocked Yunnan Province to ports in Thailand, Laos, and the rest of Southeast Asia. When fully implemented, the dredging and channeling will more than double the annual shipping capacity of the Mekong to 10 million tons and involve the passage of at least a dozen 500-ton ships daily.

14. In Bali, rice is a gift of the gods, and the traditional rice-growing cycle commences on a day set according to a religious calendar. Water regulation is an essential aspect of this highly regimented pattern of activities. Rivers cut through Bali’s volcanic mountains to the sea. The Balinese have settled the mountain ridges and covered the slopes with sawah—terraced rice paddies. Water runs by gravity but must be fairly distributed and regulated according to the needs of farmers and the system. For example, irrigated sawah are drained up to three times per year to encourage root development and allow weeding. Fields are drained for harvesting and then re-flooded to allow other plants to grow. Water hyacinth is popular because it can be worked back into the soil or used as pig feed. BALI’S SUBAK IRRIGATION

15. Balinese farmers belong to cooperatives called subak. Every farmer who owns or rents more than a quarter of an acre (one-tenth of a hectare) must join. Bali has more than 1,000 subak. Each subakelects a leader who runs the operation and liaisons with agricultural and other agencies. Subak law (awig-awig) meetings must be held on one auspicious day each month of the religious calendar. Monies/Moneys are derived from fees, fines, and land sales. Cooperation is the key to success. Subak members repair and maintain the irrigation system after the harvest in accordance with the amount of water they have received. Those not working pay a fee. The average farmer gives the communal system about 15 days a year. An important aspect of the subak is its religious connection. Each keeps a temple, which must be cooperatively maintained by the members.

17. Mountain barriers channeled the diffusion of Indian culture into Southeast Asia’s coastal regions. New ideas, religions, and customs came almost entirely by sea in sailing ships driven by the monsoon across the Bay of Bengal. As early as the sixth century BC Indian traders worked the coasts of Myanmar, the Malay Peninsula, and western Indonesia. The Indians impressed local leaders with lavish gifts, their knowledge of medicine, and their frequent portrayal of themselves as royalty. They also married into Southeast Asian society. THE IMPACT OF INDIAN CULTURE

18. Temple forms, styles of art, music, dance, and tales of the Ramayana are woven into the cultural tapestries of most Southeast Asian countries to this day. The impact of Indian culture was greatest during the Gupta Empire India’s Golden Age (320–535 AD). Hinduism and Buddhism were the most salient aspects of Indianization. Sanskrit was the first written language of the region. The Hindu concept of kingship, law codes, economic treatises, and other canon were absorbed by Southeast Asian rulers. However, the caste system and inferior standing of women were not adopted. Women have much more social and economic power than in other Asian societies. All of Southeast Asia, with the exception of the Tonkin region of northern Vietnam and the Philippines, was impacted by Indian culture.