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CLASS #1: AP. MIDTERM. CLASS #2: AP/ AdvP. CLASS #3: AdvP , PP. CLASS #4: PP. CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS. CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS. CLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW. CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCE. CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE. CLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCE.
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CLASS #1: AP MIDTERM CLASS #2: AP/AdvP CLASS #3: AdvP, PP CLASS #4: PP CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS CLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #11: PHONETICS OVERDOSE (NO GEJ) CLASS #12: GEJ2 OVERDOSE: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS
SCHEDULE FOR THE REMAINING CLASSES • We have 3 (but it’s actually TWO) classes remaining! • May 23 (NEXT WEEK): NO GEJ2 LECTURE > TWO LECTURES IN PHONETICS • May 30: TWO GEJ2 LECTURES > WE START AT NOON (WE’LL TALK ABOUT COMPLEX SENTENCES). • June 6: TRAINING FOR THE WRITTEN EXAM (examples from previous exams + hints) & TRAINING FOR THE ORAL EXAM (several question combinations from the oral exam + hints, tips and tricks)
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE LECTURE #3 – 2012-05-16
REVIEW • LAST WEEKS AGO WE DISCUSSED: • SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED (what structures are used to realize a particular sentence element: e.g. Od can be an NP or a nominal clause) > ONLY FINAL NOTES, COMMENTS, ETC. • SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SEMANTICALLY DEFINED (what are the possible roles/meanings of each sentence element) • CONCORD – grammatical agreement between sentence elements in respect to categories such as person, number and gender.
SENTENCE ELEMENTS SEMANTICALLY DEFINED
COORDINATIVE APPOSITION • This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT: • His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers was with him at his deathbed. • His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).
COORDINATIVE APPOSITION • This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT: • His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected paperswas with him at his deathbed. • His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected paperswere with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).
COORDINATION WITH OR AND NOR • Either the Mayor or her deputy IS (ARE) bound to come. • What I say or what I think IS(ARE) no business of yours. • Either the strikers of the bosses (HAS) HAVE misunderstood the claim. • Either your brakes or your eyesight IS (ARE) at fault. • Either your eyesight or your brakes ARE (IS) at fault. When coordinated items have the same number, there is pure grammatical concord: when they are both singular (1 and 2) the verb is also singular, when they are both plural (3), the verb is also plural. When coordinated items do not have the same number, English follows the principle of PROXIMITY: whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb. (4 and 5). NOT…BUT and NOT ONLY…BUT behave like EITHER…OR.
INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT - CONCORD • INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (anyone/anybody, no one/nobody, someone/somebody, everyone/everybody) and NOUNS OF DUAL GENDER (student, teacher, lawyer, judge, etc.) can be referred to by personal pronouns in THREE WAYS: • UNMARKED HE (now considered sexist): Everyone thinks he has the answer to that question. • HE OR SHE (politically correct, but long and clumsy): Someone has to make up his or her mind. • THEY (the most politically correct form): Everyone thinks they or her have the answer. Nobody called did they. Every applicant should hand in their application form now. Nowadays the best choice because of PC.
NEGATION BASIC INFORMATION
NEGATION • Negation is a LOGICAL OPERATION of implying the opposite or absence of something that is without negation regarded as actual, positive, or affirmative.
GENERAL TYPES OF NEGATION • CLAUSE NEGATION – the whole clause is syntactically treated as negative: • Rosie's [not an attractive elephant in any respect] (, is she?) • LOCAL NEGATION – one constituent/sentence element is negated (often depends on pronunciation): • [Nothing] agrees with me more than oysters. LOCAL NEGATION • Eating nothing agrees with me more than eating oysters. LOCAL NEGATION • [Nothing agrees with me more than oysters]. CLAUSAL NEGATION • Oysters agree with me more than anything elseCLAUSE NEGATION • PHRASAL NEGATION – one phrase is negated: • She gave me [not even a moment] to somehow collect my thoughts. • PREDICATION NEGATION – very rare, applies to predication only after certain auxiliaries (usually depends on pronunciation): • They may [not go swimming]. [=They are allowed not to go swimming] NEGATION IS REALIZED THROUGH USE OF NEGATIVE ITEMS.
Remember them from GEJ1? Those are the words that only appear in nonassertive sentences: any, anybody, yet, either, any longer, much, etc. NEGATIVE ITEMS • NEGATION is RELIZED through NEGATIVE ITEMS. • SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOR of NEGATIVE ITEMS: • NEGATIVE ITEMS trigger the use of NONASSERTIVE FORMS: • John is not coming either. • I don’t have many friends. • I seldom get any sleep. • When NEGATIVE ITEMS are placed in the position BEFORE THE SUBJECT, they can cause a SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION (a.k.a. NEGATIVE INVERSION): • Neverhave I seen anything like that before! • Seldomhas a truer word been spoken. • NEGATIVE ITEMS are followed by POSITIVE QUESTION TAGS: • She rarely visits you, does she?
NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS • The clause can be negated: • EITHER BY NEGATING THE VERB (VERBAL NEGATION), • OR BY NEGATING OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS (NON-VERBAL NEGATION). • Depending on what sentence element is being negated, it is necessary to use different negative items: • VERB NEGATION: the negative particle NOT is always used: He does not drink. She is not a model wife. • NEGATION OF OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS can be achieved using DIFFERENTNEGATIVE ITEMS: • Words negative in form and meaning (NUCLEAR NEGATIVES): no, none, never, not • Word negative in meaning only (not negative in form): rarely, seldom, scarcely, barely, little, few • VERBS, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSTIONS with IMPLIED NEGATIVE MEANING: refuse, deny, fail; reluctant, unaware; without, against; unless
NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS • Nuclear negatives (non-verbal explicitly negative items) can be classified into: • NEGATIVE PRONOUNS (e.g. in S or O position): • Nobodycame. Noneof the passengers were hurt. I saw nothing. • NEGATIVE MODIFYING ADVERBS: • I felt [nonethe worse] for it. > modifying AP • [Not many] people turned up. > modifying DETERMINER • [Not even] the president of Pakistan was informed. > modifying ADVERB • NEGATIVE DETERMINERS: • I expected [noreply]. [Neitherteam manager] was informed. • NEGATIVE COORDINATORS: • Neithertoday nor tomorrowis suitable. • NEGATIVE ADJUNCTS: • Elephants never forget. We found nowhereto stay.
NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS • Negatives with positive-word form (rarely, seldom, scarcely, hardly, little, few, barely, only, etc.) are treated as NEGATIVE FORMS because: • THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY NON-ASSERTIVE FORMS: • I seldomget ANY sleep. • I’ve spoken to hardly ANYONE. • Fewchanges in government have EVER taken so many people by surprise. • Onlytwo of us had ANY experience in sailing. • WHEN THEY ARE PLACED IN THE INITIAL POSITION, THEY CAUSE NEGATIVE INVERSION: • Rarely DOES crime PAY so well as Mr Benn seems to think. • LittleNEED I DWELL upon the hope that she actually loves me. • THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY POSITIVE TAG-QUESTIONS: • She scarcely seems to care for you, DOES SHE?
VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE) We’ve had some lunch. He saw one man or the other. We’ve had some. We haven’t had any lunch. We had no lunch. He didn’t see either man. He saw neither man. (unusual) We haven’t had any. We’ve had none.
OBVIOUSLY, IN THE VAST MAJORITY OF INSTANCES THE SPEAKER HAS A CHOICE BETWEEN USING THE VERBAL NEGATION (VERB+NOT) OR NON-VERBAL NEGATION (NONE, NOTHING, ETC.). • HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH THESE TWO FORMS ARE SEMANTICALLY EQUIVALENT, THEY ARE RARELY APPROPRIATE IN THE SAME STYLE OR REGISTER. • NON-VERBAL NEGATION IS MUCH MORE FREQUENT IN FORMAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE, WHILE VERBAL NEGATION IS MORE INFORMAL. VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE) He saw one or other of the men. I’ve bought something for you. She sometimes visits me. He didn’t see either of the men. He saw neither of the men. I haven’t bought anything for you. I’ve bought nothing for you. She doesn’t ever visit me. She never visits me.
DIGRESSION: multiple negation • Unlike most other languages, standard national forms of English (BrE, AmE, CaE, AuE, etc.) DO NOT FAVOR MULTIPLE NEGATION. • Multiple negation is allowed in SUB-STANDARD varieties of English, e.g. AAVE: Yo, I’m telling you man, nobody ain’tseen nothing. • The negative item MUST BE FOLLOWED THROUGHOUT THE REST OF THE CLAUSE BY ONE OR MORE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS.\ • I haven’t said ANYTHING to ANYBODYYET.
DIGRESSION: multiple negation • However, even in standard English it is occasionally permissible to have two negations if each negative element negates its own part of the sentence. • I ca[n’t] [not obey]. • [Not many people] have [nowhere to live]. • [No one] has [nothing to offer to society]. • [Not many Spaniards] have [no knowledge of bull fighting]. • [Nobody here] has [never at any time told a lie]. • Neighbours [should not be] [uncooperative]. THE FACT THAT THESE SENTENCES ARE GRAMMATICAL HAS TO DO WITH SOMETHING CALLED “SCOPE OF NEGATION”
NEGATION: SCOPE OF NEGATION • The SCOPE OF NEGATION is the stretch of language OVER WHICH THE NEGATIVE MEANING OPERATES AND WHERE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS MUST BE USED. • The SCOPE OF NEGATION EXTENDS FROM THE NEGATIVE ITEM TO: • THE END OF THE CLAUSE (NOT NECESSARILY THE END OF THE SENTENCE), • THE END OF THE NEGATED PHRASE (IF ONLY A SINGLE PHRASE IS NEGATED), OR • THE BEGINNING OF THE FINAL ADJUNCT. • WHY IS THIS SUCH A BIG DEAL? The POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE ITEM may drastically INFLUENCE THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE SENTENCE:
SCOPE OF NEGATION • Nothing agrees with me more than oysters. = There is nothing else that I like more than oysters. • Nothing agrees with me more than oysters. = I would much rather eat nothing than oysters.
SCOPE OF NEGATION • I definitely didn’t speak to him. = It is definite that I did not. • I didn’t definitely speak to him. = It is not definite that I did.
SCOPE OF NEGATION • I wasn’t LISTENING all the time. = For the whole time, I wasn’t listening. • I wasn’t listening ALL the time. = It’s not true that I was listening all the time. SO, WHEN AN ADJUNCT IS FINAL, IT MAY OR MAY NOT LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.
SCOPE OF NEGATION • I didn’t listen to some of them. = There were some of the speakers that I didn’t listen to. • I didn’t listen to any of them. = There were not any speakers that I listened to. SO, IF AN ASSERTIVE ITEM IS USED IN THE ADJUNCT, THE ADJUNCT MUST LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.
FOCUS OF NEGATION • The FOCUS OF NEGATION is the part of the sentence within the scope of negation that bears special stress. E.g. • I didn’t take the <GRAMMAR> exam last week. • I didn’t take the grammar <EXAM> last week. • I didn’t take the grammar exam <LAST> week. • I didn’t take the grammar exam last <WEEK>.
FOCUS OF NEGATION – add-on • Focus of negation is a SPECIAL/CONTRASTIVE NUCLEAR STRESS which is placed on a particular part of the clause in order to indicate that the contrast of meaning implicit in THE NEGATION IS LOCATED AT THAT SPOT and also that THE REST OF THE CLAUSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN A POSITIVE SENSE. • The focus of negation can split the scope of negation so that the scope becomes DISCONTINUOUS.
FOCUS OF NEGATION • I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today. = I forgot to do so. (FALLING INTONATION) • I didn’t take JOAN to swim in the pool today. = I took Mary instead.
FOCUS OF NEGATION • I didn’t take Joan to SWIM in the pool today. = I just took her there to see the pool. • I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today. = I took her to the lake instead. (RISING INTONATION)
FOCUS OF NEGATION • I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool TODAY. = I took her there last week. • I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. = It was my brother who took her.
SCOPE AND FOCUS • Scope and focus of negation are INTERRELATED, such that the scope must include the focus. • So, one way of signaling the extent of the scope of negation is by the position of the focus. • One example of this is when the scope of negation is atypically extended to include a subordinate clause, with a contrastive fall-rise to emphasize this:
SCOPE AND FOCUS • I didn’t leave HOME because I was afraid of my FATHER. = Because I was afraid of my father, I didn’t leave home. • I didn’t leave home because I was afraid of my FATHER. = I left home, but it wasn’t because I was afraid of my father.
SCOPE AND FOCUS • She didn’t come to SEE him when he ASKED. = When he asked, she didn’t come to see him. • She didn’t come to see him when he ASKED. = She came to see him, but not at the time he asked her to come to see him.
THE END OF SIMPLE SENTENCE.
COMPLEX SENTENCE INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES • Based on the number and type of clauses in a sentence, there are three types of sentences:
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES • SIMPLE SENTENCE = SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE, all sentence elements are realized as phrases: [The members] [did not know] [the scope of the problem]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) • COMPLEX SENTENCE = ONE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE AND AT LEAST ONE DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, at least one sentence element is realized as a clause: [The members] [know] [that the problem has a wide scope]. S (NP) V (VP) O (clause) [The members] [knew] [the answer] [when the chairman asked]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) (A) (clause)
