Causes of the War of 1812

1. Causes of the War of 1812 • A series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, a country with which Britain was at war • the impressment (forced recruitment) of U.S. seamen into the Royal Navy • the British military support for the Indians who were offering armed resistance to the expansion of the American frontier to the Northwest • a possible desire on the part of the United States to annex Canada • An unspoken but powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honor

2. Timeline of Trade Issues with Britain and France • Having conquered Europe but lacking the naval strength to invade Britain, Napoleon sought to economically cripple the island nation. • Thus, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree in November 1806 and instituted the Continental System which made all trade, neutral or otherwise, with Britain illegal • In response, London (England) issued the Orders in Councilon November 11, 1807, which closed European ports to trade and barred foreign ships from entering them unless they first called at a British port and paid customs duties.

3. Timeline of Trade Issues with Britain and France • To enforce this, the Royal Navy tightened its blockade of the Continent. • Napoleon responded with his Milan Decree a month later which stated that any ship that followed the British rules would be considered British property and seized. • As a result, American shipping became prey for both sides. • Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807 on December 25. This act effectively ended American foreign trade by prohibiting American ships from calling at overseas ports.

4. Timeline of Trade Issues with Britain and France • Jefferson hoped to end the threat to American vessels by removing them from the oceans while depriving Britain and France of American goods. • The act failed to achieve his goal of pressuring the European superpowers and instead severely crippled the American economy. • In December 1809, it was replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act which allowed overseas trade, but not with Britain and France. • This still failed to change their policies. A final revision was issued in 1810 which removed all embargoes, but stated that if one nation stopped attacks on American ships, the United States would begin an embargo against the other. 

5. Timeline of Trade Issues with Britain and France • Accepting this offer, Napoleon promised Madison, now president, that neutral rights would honored. • This agreement further angered the British despite the fact that the French reneged and continued seizing neutral ships.

6. War Hawks & Expansion in the West • With the creation of the Northwest Territory in 1787, increasing numbers moved to the present-day states of Ohio and Indiana pressuring the Native Americans in those areas to move.

7. War Hawks & Expansion in the West •  Early resistance to white settlement led to conflicts and in 1794 an American army defeated the Western Confederacy • Over the next fifteen years, government agents negotiated various treaties and land deals to push the Native Americans farther west. • These actions were opposed by several Native American leaders, including the Shawnee chief Tecumseh. • Working to build a confederacy to oppose the Americans, he accepted aid from the British in Canada and promised an alliance should war occur. • Seeking to break the confederacy before it could fully form, Harrison defeated Tecumseh's brother, Tenskwatawa, at the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811.

8. War Hawks & Expansion in the West • Many believed the raids by Native Americans on frontier settlements were encouraged and supported by the British in Canada. • As a result, resentment and dislike of the British, further fueled by events at sea, grew in the west where a new group of politicians known as the "War Hawks" began to emerge. • Nationalistic in spirit, they desired war with Britain to end the attacks, restore the nation's honor, and possibly to expel the British from Canada.

9. The War Hawks • The leader of the War Hawks was Henry Clay of Kentucky, who was elected to the House of Representatives in 1810. • He served two brief terms in the Senate before being elected to the House of Representatives. • He was immediately elected Speaker of the House and transformed the position into one of power. • In Congress, Clay and the War Hawk agenda were supported by individuals such as John C. Calhoun (SC), Richard Mentor Johnson (KY), Felix Grundy (TN), and George Troup (GA). • With Clay guiding debate, he ensured that Congress moved down the road to war.

10. Too Little, Too Late • The issues of impressment, Native American attacks, and the seizure of American ships, had Clay and his cohorts clamoring for war in early 1812, despite the country's lack of military preparedness. Efforts were made to expand the army but without great success. • In England, the government of King George III was largely preoccupied with Napoleon's invasion of Russia. The British did not wish to fight a war in North America in addition to the larger conflict in Europe. • As a result, Parliament began debating repealing the Orders in Council and normalizing trade relations with the United States. This concluded in suspension of the Orders in Council on June 16 and removal on June 23.

11. Too Little, Too Late • Unaware of events in London due to the slow speed of communication, Clay led the debate for war in Washington. • The nation wasn’t united in a call for war. • In some places, people even debated who to fight: Britain or France. • On June 1, Madison submitted his war message to Congress. • Three days later, the House voted for war, 79 to 49; On June 17, the Senate reluctantly voted 19 to 13 for war. It was the closest war vote in the history of country • Madison signed the declaration the next day.

12. The End • "Many nations go to war in pure gayety of heart, but perhaps the United States were the first to force themselves into a war they dreaded, in hope that the war itself might create the spirit they lacked.“ Henry Adams, 1787