Supervision

1. Supervision Connie Callahan, Ph.D.

2. The Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision also provides detailed coverage of the communicative and relational factors which influence the super- vision process . For example , supervisory interac- tion can be facilitative , confrontive , prescriptive , or catalytic . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page FFlap.

3. Psychotherapy supervision is important because , among other possibilities , it pro- vides supervisees with feedback about their performance ; offers them guidance about what to do in times of confusion and need ; allows them the opportunity to get alter- nate views and perspectives about patient dynamics , interventions , and course of treat- ment ; stimulates or enhances curiosity about patients and the treatment experience ; contributes to the process of forming a therapist " identity "; and serves as a " secure base " for supervisees , letting them know that they are not alone in their learning about and performing of psychotherapy ( Cooper & Witenberg , 1983 ; Greben , 1991 ; Hart , 1982 ; Hoffman , 1994 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 3.

4. psychotherapy supervision serves a critical quality- control function , ensuring that ( a ) patients are provided with acceptable care , ( b ) ther- apists do no harm , ( c ) therapists possess sufficient skills to function as " therapists ," and ( d ) those who lack such skills are not allowed to continue without some form of reme- diation ( Harrar , VandeCreek , & Knapp , 1990 ; Knapp & VandeCreek , Chapter 30 , this volume ; Stoltenberg & Delworth , 1987 ; Watkins , 1994 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 3.

5. Consider the following definition offered by Bernard and Goodyear ( 1992 ): An intervention that is provided by a senior member of a profession to a junior member or members of that same profession . This relationship is evaluative , extends over time , and has the simultaneous purposes of enhancing the professional functioning of the junior member ( s ), monitoring the quality of professional services offered to the clients she , he , or they see ( s ), and serving as a gatekeeper for those who are to enter the particular profession . ( p . 4 ) • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 4.

6. Relationship . Supervision takes place in a relational context ; it is first and foremost a rela- tionship between senior and junior professional members . All supervisory approaches ( e . g ., see Part II , Chapters 3 to 14 ) recognize the relational component of psychotherapy supervi- sion , but the emphasis they accord it varies ( cf . Goodyear & Bradley , 1983 ). Some speak of the supervisory relationship as a learning alliance ( Fleming & Benedek , 1983 ); others see it as being the " essence " of the supervision experience ( Patterson , 1983 ); and still others appear to consider it a " medium " ( a means to an end ) for the teaching of needed skills and techniques ( Linehan , 1980 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 4.

7. Evaluation . If supervisees are to receive feedback about their performance ; are to be told about their therapeutic strengths and weaknesses ; are to be informed about their skills or areas of functioning that need to be developed , further enhanced , or improved ; and if patient care is to he monitored and protected , then supervision must be evaluative . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 4.

8. In psychother- apy training programs , for example , students not only receive critical feedback about their performance and progress , they can be graded as well . Grading is typically either pass-fail or satisfactory-unsatisfactory , or a letter grade is assigned for work completed . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 4.

9. In other cases , in which an already graduated professional voluntarily chooses to be supervised by a more experienced professional , the evaluation can exclusively involve the provision of feedback about performance , skills , and effectiveness . Whatever the nature of the supervi- sory relationship , some form of evaluation is involved , and that is how it must always be .

10. Extends Over Time . Supervision is a process wherein learning and growth occur . For that to happen , however , time is required . Supervisees must have opportunities to work with varied patients ; to experience the therapeutic process as it unfolds ; to track and scrutinize their treatment efforts over time ( what and with whom do they do well , not well , and why ); and to try out different interventions , strategies , and techniques along the way ( to see what fits and what does not fit for them ). All • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 4.

11. From this author ' s observations of university training programs , supervisor and supervisee often work together for a full academic year ( about 9 months ). It is rather common , too , for these supervisees to work with more than one supervisor during that time period ( Greenberg , 1980 ). Furthermore , more than one ( academic ) year of psychotherapy practice and super- vision may be required .

12. In many practice sites that train psychotherapists ( e . g ., mental health centers or counsel- ing centers ), supervisor and supervisee can work together for anywhere from about 4 to 12 months , depending on the nature of the setting and its primary training goals and needs . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 5.

13. In still other training situations , for example , psychoanalytic training institutes , the supervisor- supervisee relationship may well last longer than 12 months . And further still , the supervi- sion relationship between already practicing professionals and their supervisors can last longer yet-even several years in duration for some ( see McCarthy , Kulakowski , & Kenfield , 1994 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 5.

14. Enhancing Professional Functioning . Supervision is all about helping the therapist become better and more effective with regard to conceptual ability , intervention , assess- ment , and implementation , among other areas . By means of supervision , it is the super- visor ' s hope and intention that therapist functioning will thereby be enhanced . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 5.

15. Monitoring Quality of Professional Service . What type of care is the patient receiving ? Supervisors are ultimately responsible for the treatment that their supervisees ' patients receive ; they must then be ever attentive to the quality of that treatment and how it serves the patient in the process . If supervisees are providing sufficient to high-quality treatment , how can they be helped to make it even better ? If treatment quality is less than sufficient , what can supervisors do to bring it up to at least an acceptable level ? If supervisees are unable to bring their treatment efforts up to such a level , or if they are actually harming patients , what steps must the supervisor take to help both supervisee and patient move ahead ? Those questions are integral to the supervision endeavor and must be dealt with if patient care is to be improved upon and protected .

16. Serving as Gatekeeper . Consistent with their monitoring function , supervisors are gate- keepers as well . If they deem that a supervisee ( e . g ., a master ' s or doctoral student ) still lacks the needed therapy skills after supervised training , they can require that he or she engage in remediation . In some cases that can mean additional training and supervision ; in other cases , it may become clear that the supervisee is in need of personal therapy as well as additional training and supervision . Whatever the form of remediation , supervisees are judged not ready to enter the profession and are not allowed to do so ; the supervisor is responsible for making such a judgment and in that way serves as a keeper of the gate .

17. What factors influence what supervisors do , why they do it , and how they do it ? These ques- tions relate to the supervisor ' s goal of facilitating both supervisee and patient growth . To answer the questions , we need to focus on the supervisor ' s ( a ) assumptive world , ( b ) theory or model , ( c ) supervisory style , ( d ) roles and strategies , ( e ) foci , ( f ) format of supervision , and ( g ) techniques ( see Friedlander & Ward , 1984 ; Rodenhauser , Painter , & Rudisill , 1985 ; Shanfield & Gil , 1985 ). Those factors can all be seen as " interrelated sources of variabil- ity among supervisors " ( Friedlander & Ward , 1984 , p . 542 ).

18. Assumptive World . Assumptive world refers to the supervisor ' s " past professional and life experience , training , values , and general outlook on life " ( Bernard & Goodyear , 1992 , p . 35 ). The assumptive world is a product , then , of the professional and the personal ( e . g ., working with patients and supervisees and interacting with other individuals in various roles and capacities ). It reflects our values , assumptions , and overall perspective on life and living , the world at large , and our place in it . The assumptive world logically affects the next factor or level of functioning-choice of a theory or model .

19. Theory or Model . A theory can be defined as " an attempt to organize and integrate knowledge and to answer the question Why ?'" ( Patterson & Watkins , 1996 , p . 1 ). Or as Lazarus ( 1993 ) has put it , " a theory endeavors to answer the question of why and how cer- tain processes arise , are maintained , can be modified , or are extinguished , and to make pre- dictions therefrom " ( p . 675 , emphasis in original ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 6.

20. According to Patterson and Watkins ( 1996 ), a good theory ideally possesses the following characteristics : importance ( i . e ., it addresses something that matters ), precision and clarity , parsimony and simplicity , com- prehensiveness , operationality , empirical validity , fruitfulness , and practicality . A theory , then , represents an effort to understand , organize , and predict relative to some phenome- non or phenomena ( e . g ., human functioning ). It is a valuable road map that enables us to better navigate the territory we need to cross ( Krumboltz , 1991 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 6.

21. In psychotherapy , for example , one ' s theory can offer understanding about patient prob- lems ( how they came to be , how they are maintained , what can be done about them , and why ). One ' s theory of psychotherapy supervision may offer understanding about variables such as the supervisor-supervisee relationship , supervisee dynamics , supervisee resistance and transference , supervisory interventions , and the process of supervisee growth and development . Thus • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 6.

22. In considering the role of theory , one important question arises : Are the practitioner ' s theory of therapy and theory of supervision the same or different ? • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 6.

23. Supervisory Style . Supervisory style refers to supervisors ' rather consistent , characteris- tic manner of relating to their supervisees . For instance , is the supervisor primarily facili- tative in manner ? dictatorial ? passive ? Shanfield ' s ( see Shanfield & Gil , 1985 ) research identified four basic supervisor styles-task-oriented , expert , confrontative and directive , and facilitative-that vary across eight dimensions ( e . g ., control of supervisory session , activity level ). Later research has further confirmed the consistent , enduring nature of super- visor style in psychotherapy supervision ( Shanfield , Mohl , Matthews , & Hetherly , 1992 ). In essence , style is the characteristic fashion in which the supervisor relates to supervisees and implements his or her assumptive world and theory or model in supervision . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 7.

24. Roles / Strategies . Role refers to " a function ... assumed by someone [ an advisory role ]" ( Guralnick , 1972 , p . 1233 ). Strategy ( though often used to refer to a technique or specific intervention ) can also be defined in the same way ( e . g ., Rodenhauser et al ., 1985 ). Some of the different roles / strategies that supervisors can assume include teacher , lecturer , instruc- tor ( Hess , 1980 ; Holloway , 1984 ; Holloway & Aposhyan , 1994 ; Rodenhauser et al ., 1985 ); counselor , therapist ( Hess , 1980 ; Holloway , 1984 ); consultant ( Holloway , 1984 ; Roden- hauser et al ., 1985 ); colleague , collegial-peer ( Hess , 1980 ; Holloway , 1984 ); monitor ( Hess , 1980 ; Holloway , 1984 ); case reviewer ( Hess , 1980 ); model and mentor ( Holloway & Aposhyan , 1994 ); and administrator and interactor ( Rodenhauser et al ., 1985 ). Supervision requires us to perform different roles at different times . Because of the nature of our assump- tive world , theory-model , and style , we may understandably give more emphasis to and feel more comfortable engaging in certain supervisory roles as opposed to others .

25. Foci . The term foci refers to the factors or processes that receive primary attention during the supervision session . To draw again on Rodenhauser et al . ( 1985 ), four such focal points are professional / organizational factors , assessment / planning processes , implementation / intervention / evaluation processes , and personal factors . Professional / organizational fac- tors relate to matters of record keeping , billing procedures , and ethical and legal concerns .

26. Assessment / planning processes involve issues of treatment planning , decision making , and modality determination . Implementation / intervention / evaluation processes involve teach- ing supervisees about relevant treatment concepts ( e . g ., transference ), parallel process , and patient regression . Personal factors include concerns about culture , gender , and ethnicity ( e . g ., therapist-patient differences ), discussions of referrals when needed , and considera- tion of the impact of countertransference on the therapist ' s treatment efforts .

27. Techniques . Techniques refer to the supervisor ' s actual interventions used in supervision . According to Loganbill , Hardy , and Delworth ( 1982 ), supervisory interventions can take varied forms . Some might be facilitative ( e . g ., offering support and encouragement ) or confrontive ( e . g ., identifying a conflict or discrepancy between the supervisee ' s verbal and nonverbal behavior ).

28. Techniques • Others might be conceptual ( e . g ., helping the supervisee think about patient dynamics ). Still others might be prescriptive ( e . g ., telling the supervisee what seems needed in a particular therapeutic situation ) or catalytic ( e . g ., encouraging the supervisee to experiment with different techniques in therapy ). Techniques involve doing ; they are active and are engaged in for a particular reason to bring about some desired or expected result . Of all the factors discussed thus far , technique would be the most specific level of operation in supervisor functioning

29. A Multilayered Conceptualization All the foregoing factors lead to a multilayered conceptualization of supervisor functioning .

30. Table 1 . 1 Factors That Compose and Influence Supervisor Functioning : A Multilayered Conceptualization Layers Assumptive World Theory / Model Style Roles / Strategies Foci Format Techniques Note : This conceptualization reflects the work of Friedlander and Ward ( 1984 ), Roden- hauser et al . ( 1985 ), and Shanfield and Gil ( 1985 ).

31. REFERENCES Bernard , J . M ., & Goodyear , R . K . ( 1992 ). Fundamentals of clinical supervision . Boston : Allyn & Bacon . Bradley , L . J . ( 1989 ). Counselor supervision : Principles , process , and practice ( 2nd ed .). Muncie , IN : Accelerated Development . Chapanis , A . ( 1961 ). Men , machines , and models . American Psychologist , 16 , 116-131 . Cooper , A ., & Witenberg , E . G . ( 1983 ). Stimulation of curiosity in the supervisory process of psy- choanalysis . Contemporary Psychoanalysis , 19 , 248-264 . Fleming , J ., & Benedek , T . ( 1983 ). Psychoanalytic supervision : A method of clinical teaching . New York : International Universities Press . Friedlander , M . L ., & Ward , L . G . ( 1984 ). Development and validation of the Supervisory Styles Inventory . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 31 , 541-557 . Goodyear , R . K ., & Bradley , F . O . ( 1983 ). Theories of counselor supervision : Points of convergence and divergence . The Counseling Psychologist , 11 ( 1 ), 59-67 .

32. Greenberg , L . ( 1980 ). Supervision from the perspective of the supervisee . In A . K . Hess ( Ed .), Psy- chotherapy supervision : Theory , research and practice ( pp . 85-91 ). New York : Wiley . Guralnick , D . B . ( Ed .). ( 1972 ). Webster ' s new world dictionary . New York : World Publishing . Harrar , W . R ., VandeCreek , L ., & Knapp , S . ( 1990 ). Ethical and legal aspects of clinical supervi- sion . Professional Psychology : Research and Practice , 21 , 37-41 . Hart , G . ( 1982 ). The process of clinical supervision . Baltimore : University Park Press . Hess , A . K . ( 1980 ). Training models and the nature of psychotherapy supervision . In A . K . Hess ( Ed .), Psychotherapy supervision : Theory , research and practice ( pp . 15-25 ). New York : Wiley . Hoffman , L . W . ( 1994 ). The training of psychotherapy supervisors : A barren scape . Psychotherapy in Private Practice , 13 , 23-42 . Holloway , E . L . ( 1984 ). Outcome evaluation in supervision research . The Counseling Psychologist , 12 ( 4 ), 167-174 . Holloway , E . L ., & Aposhyan , H . M . ( 1994 ). The supervisor as teacher , model , and mentor for careers and psychotherapy . Journal of Career Assessment , 2 , 191-197 . Krumboltz , J . D . ( 1991 ). The 1990 Leona Tyler Award Address : Brilliant insights-platitudes that bear repeating . The Counseling Psychologist , 19 , 298-315 . Lazarus , A . A . ( 1993 ). Theory , subjectivity and bias : Can there be a future ? Psychotherapy , 30 , 674-677 . Linehan , M . M . ( 1980 ). Supervision of behavior therapy . In A . K . Hess ( Ed .), Psychotherapy super- vision : Theory , research and practice ( pp . 148-180 ). New York : Wiley . Loganbill , C ., Hardy , E ., & Delworth , U . ( 1982 ). Supervision : A conceptual model . The Counsel- ing Psychologist , 10 ( 1 ), 3-42 . McCarthy , P ., Kulakowski , D ., & Kenfield , J . A . ( 1994 ). Clinical supervision practices of licensed psychologists . Professional Psychology : Research and Practice , 25 , 177-181 . Patterson , C . H . ( 1983 ). A client-centered approach to supervision . The Counseling Psychologist , 11 ( 1 ), 21-25 . Patterson , C . H ., & Watkins , C . E ., Jr . ( 1996 ). Theories of psychotherapy ( 5th ed .). New York : HarperCollins . Rodenhauser , P . ( 1992 ). Psychiatry residency programs : Trends in psychotherapy supervision . Amer- ican Journal of Psychotherapy , 46 , 240-249 . Rodenhauser , P ., Painter , A . F ., & Rudisill , J . R . ( 1985 ). Supervising supervisors : A series of work- shops . Journal of Psychiatric Education , 9 , 217-224 . Shanfield , S . B ., & Gil , D . ( 1985 ). Styles of psychotherapy supervision . Journal of Psychiatric Edu- cation , 9 , 225-232 . Shanfield , S . B ., Mohl , P . C ., Matthews , K . L ., & Hetherly , V . ( 1992 ). Quantitative assessment of the behavior of psychotherapy supervisors . American Journal of Psychiatry , 149 , 352-357 . Simon , H . A ., & Newell , A . ( 1963 ). The uses and limitations of models . In M . Marx ( Ed .), Theo- ries in contemporary psychology ( pp . 89-104 ). New York : Macmillan . Stoltenberg , C . D ., & Delworth , U . ( 1987 ). Supervising counselors and therapists : A developmen- tal approach . San Francisco : Jossey-Bass . Watkins

33. Therapist Characteristics A plethora of therapist characteristics potentially could affect the process and outcome of supervision , and many ways to categorize these characteristics exist . Because those ther- apist characteristics that have been identified as important in the study of psychotherapy should also be important in the study of supervision , we have , for heuristic purposes , adapted the taxonomy of therapist characteristics in the context of psychotherapy pro- posed by Beutler , Machado , and Neufeldt ( 1994 ).

34. Characteristics Age Sex Ethnicity Cross- Situational Traits Professional background Therapeutic styles Therapist interventions Therapeutic relationships Social influence attributes Expectancies Therapeutic philosophy orientation Personality and coping patterns Emotional well-being Values , attitudes , and

35. it has been found that therapists tend to adopt the theoretical orientation of the supervisor and maintain that orientation for sev- eral years ( Guest & Beutler , 1988 ). • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 15.

36. In those instances in which theoretical orientation of the therapist is initially discordant with that of the supervisor , however , conflict may affect the supervision process . For example , a behavioral supervisor may question the therapist about the behavioral antecedents of the patient ' s problematic behavior . The therapist may not be able to respond in the desired way because he or she does not know the answer ; a behavioral analysis was not conducted because of therapist orientation . The supervisor may then make attributions about the therapist based on the therapist ' s inability to provide the desired information , and these attributions may or may not be consistent with the ther- apist ' s therapeutic competence in his or her area . Kennard et al . ( 1987 ) found that similar theoretical orientation and interpretive style contributed to trainees ' reported positive super- visory experiences

37. it could be argued that the ultimate goal of supervision is to effect positive change in the patient . Our position is that in most supervision contexts , and particularly in the context of therapists-in-training , the supervisor may intervene in supervision in such a way that the therapist subsequently affects the patient positively and that the effect on the patient was an explicit goal of the supervision intervention . However , almost certainly a superordinate goal was to increase the skill of the therapist so that the therapist would recognize similar therapeutic situations in the future and be able to intervene successfully in such situations ; that is , the supervisor hopes that therapist learning generalizes to the therapist ' s treatment of other patients . Although patient change is the ultimate goal of the supervision / therapeutic process , change in all patients of the therapi st / supervi see , present and future , is paramount rather than the patient of the case that is the focus of an instance of supervision . In those cases in which the patient is in crisis and / or there is imminent danger ( e . g ., suicide ), however , the goals of supervision change and supervision becomes much more focused on the patient . In these conditions , as would be expected , the super- visor becomes increasingly more directive with the therapist to ensure patient outcome ( Tracey et al ., 1989 ). The next most distal level is performance

38. Process of Psychotherapy -- Process of Supervision The process of supervision is both implicitly and explicitly influenced by the process of psychotherapy . The explicitly stated connection is the " what " of supervision . The topics of supervision typically are related to aspects of the client ( including client characteris- tics , diagnosis , and severity ), the trainee ' s conceptualization of the case , treatment plans , and the therapeutic interaction . These aspects of therapy enter supervision via the trainee ' s report , video- or audiotapes of the therapeutic session , or case notes .

39. There is an additional hypothesized influence of therapy on supervision through an implicit process related to supervision / therapy dynamics . The therapist may reenact the therapy process in supervision , creating a dynamic labeled parallel process ( Doehrman , 1976 ; Ekstein & Wallerstein , 1958 ). For example , the therapist who is feeling helpless and powerless in the face of the patient ' s helplessness and hopelessness of depression may reenact this sense of defeat within the supervision dyad by resisting any suggestions to intervene .

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44. The Process of Supervision in Psychoanalysis In most psychoanalytic training programs , the education and training of a psychoanalyst are based on a tripartite model involving the candidate ' s personal psychoanalysis , the completion of a didactic curriculum , and the analysis of several patients under the supervision of a senior analytic teacher.

45. The personal analysis allows the candidate to acquire firsthand experience of being a patient and increasing awareness of his or her own internal conscious and unconscious mental processing and functions . It is hoped that modification of the neurotic conflicts , symptoms , or inhibitions within the candidate will also occur , resulting in partial reorganization of the candidate ' s personality in an advance toward psychic maturation .

46. The didactic curriculum involves a series of seminars ( with appropriate reading assignments ) that include the understanding of normal as well as psychopathological development , the general theory of motivation and the understanding of behavior , the various pathological syndromes conceptualized on the basis of psychodynamic and psychoanalytic thinking , and a series of technical seminars dealing with the generally accepted procedures and techniques of therapeutic analysis .

47. These technical courses can , however , offer or describe only a general and non- specific presentation of psychoanalytic technique and practice . They are usually augmented in the curriculum by a series of case presentations or continuous case conferences in which candidates are exposed in detail to cases other than their own , from which to observe a spectrum of psychodynamic and psychoanalytic interactions . • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 31.

48. The third leg of the tripartite system is the experience of supervision in which the can- didate conducts the analysis of patients with the help of a supervising analyst . The super- visor is someone designated by the institute to fulfill this function , based upon the evalu- ation of this individual and his or her teaching , conceptual , and technical skills . In most institutes , the candidate is expected to have a different supervisor for each required case . This process of supervision usually begins on a weekly basis and continues for the dura- tion of that psychoanalytic treatment , although

49. The third leg of the tripartite system is the experience of supervision in which the can- didate conducts the analysis of patients with the help of a supervising analyst . The super- visor is someone designated by the institute to fulfill this function , based upon the evalu- ation of this individual and his or her teaching , conceptual , and technical skills . In most institutes , the candidate is expected to have a different supervisor for each required case . This process of supervision usually begins on a weekly basis and continues for the dura- tion of that psychoanalytic treatment , although

50. Although the specific goals of a particular supervisory experience may vary , the general orientation is that in supervision the candidate ' s access to his or her own internal psy- chological experience and function , as well as the theoretical and technical learning that has occurred during the curriculum , will be synthesized and applied to the analysis of the particular case at hand . In that way , the three components of psychoanalytic education become progressively integrated and contribute to the development of the candidate ' s " psychoanalytic instrument ." • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL • C. Edward Watkins. Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision (Clinical Psychology & Personality). (Wiley, 1997). Page 32.