The Road to Independence

The Road to Independence

The Mercantilist System • Assumed: • Colonies exist only for the benefit of the mother country • British colonies beneficial • Ensured naval supremacy by providing ships, ships’ stores, sailors, and trade • Provided raw materials: tobacco, indigo, lumber, fish, etc. • Provided a large consumer market for British goods • Kept gold and silver in the empire by making Britain self-sufficient

Navigation Laws (Acts) • Purpose was to enforce mercantilist system • They ensured: • that restricted commerce to and from colonies to British or American vessels only • That certain “enumerated” articles like tobacco can’t be shipped to any other foreign market except England, despite higher prices in foreign markets • All European goods going to America had to go through England first • No manufacturing encouraged in colonies and certain products were prohibited from exportation

Negative Impact of Mercanilism • Colonial manufacturing hindered • Southern colonies suffered due to “enumeration” • New England resented favorable British policies toward Southern colonies (who produced tobacco, sugar, and rice • Writs of Assistance • Search warrants by British customs officers harassed colonial shipping • Aimed to reduce colonial smuggling • 1761, young Boston lawyer James Otis demands repeal of acts • Parliament refuses, but case becomes famous • Otis later penned phrase: ‘no taxation without representation’

Reasons for Colonial Alienation • End of “salutary neglect • King George III • Proclamation of 1763 • Currency Act (1764) – restriction on colonial printing of money; taxes to be paid with specie only • Sugar Act, 1764 – aimed to replace earlier Molasses Act and was first act ever passed specifically that raised revenue for the crown • Quartering Act, 1765 – certain colonies required to provide food and quarters for British troops

Three Great Crises • Three great crises led to American Revolution: Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and Tea Act • Stamp Act, 1765: perhaps the single most important event leading to revolution • Purpose was as a revenue-generator for Britain • Provisions: • Official stamps on paper would serve as proof of payment • Tax applied to published materials and legal documents (pamphlets, newspapers, diplomas, marriage/death certificates, mortgages, insurance policies, liquor licenses, and playing cards) • Sugar/Stamp Act tried offenders in admiralty courts where juries not allowed • British viewed this as fair because similar tax had been in effect for 50 years PLUS colonies should contribute toward the expense of their defense

Reactions • VA Resolves (led by Patrick Henry) • VA leaders believed that Stamp Act attacked colonists’ rights as Englishmen • 5 of Henry’s 7 resolutions adopted by House of Burgesses including non-importation • Claimed that VA could only be taxed by Virginians (“no taxation without representation”) • Assemblies of 8 other colonies passed resolutions similar to that of VA

“Virtual Representation” • Colonial views distinguished between “legislation” and “taxation” • Legislation, “external taxes,” the right of Parliament regarding the empire; e.g. customs duties (tariffs) • Taxation, “internal taxes,” exclusive right of local representational government • Many believed British taxation was robbery; attacking the sacred rights of property • British held that the colonies WERE represented; that even those who did not vote had their needs attended (Virtual Representation)

Stamp Act Congress (1765) • MA invited colonies who adopted VA Resolves to meet • 27 delegates from 9 colonies drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and demanded that the king and Parliament rescind the Stamp Act • Largely ignored in Britain; little consequence in the colonies • Significance: brought together representatives from different and rival colonies and set precedent for future resistance to British rule (unity) • Non-importation agreements against British goods (boycott)

Sons of Liberty • Led by Samuel Adams • group who violently enforced non-importation agreements against violators (tarring and feathering was one painful tactic) • Houses of pro-British officials vandalized, theft occurred, and the warehouse where stamps were stored was vandalized • All stamp agents were forced to resign – none risked selling them • Stamp Act was repealed in 1766 but issued Declaratory Act at the same time (partly to save face – it claimed that Parliament had the right to tax colonies in the future) • Sugar Tax also lowered significantly

Townshend Acts (1767) • Charles Townsend took control of Parliament and sought to punish colonies for the Stamp Act uprising • Provisions: small import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, silk and tea • Revenues gained from taxes used to pay the salaries of royal governors and judges • Established a commission and vice-admiralty courts for enforcement • Royal judges would be allowed to grant “writs of assistance” in private homes, shops or warehouses

Colonial reaction • Colonies angrily interpreted the act as an inappropriate tax to raise revenue • John Dickinson, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania • Challenged distinction between “internal” and “external” taxes • Denied right to levy taxes for purpose of revenue • Prompted the Massachusetts Circular Letter • MA supported Dickinson’s arguments and called for other colonies to pass petitions calling for Parliament to repeal the acts • In response, British sent troops to Boston and threatened to dissolve MA legislature if letter not retracted • Some colonies reenacted the boycott (Brit exports fall 40% in a few months) • Several colonial legislatures dissolve as they supported MA: MD, VA, DE, SC

Boston Massacre • (peaceful) arrival of troops in Boston aroused American resistance; colonials afraid of standing armies and believed Britain sought to suppress colonial liberties • March 5, 1770: British soldiers (having been provoked) fired on a crowd • 11 civilians are killed or wounded, including mulatto merchant seaman Crispus Attucks (“first casualty of the revolution”) who was allegedly leader of the unruly mob • Colonial propaganda grossly exaggerated the event • The act is repealed in 1770, though a three-cent tax on tea remained to demonstrate Parliament’s right to tax • Half the troops in Boston were removed

Committees of Correspondence • Some colonial discontent continued as the British redoubled efforts to enforce Navigation Laws • Sam Adams used propaganda to whip up colonial resentment • Adams organized local committees of correspondence in MA whose function it was to spread propaganda and info by interchanging letters to keep opposition alive • These intercolonial groups evolved directly into the first American congresses

Tea Act Crisis and First Continental Congress • Brits grant British East India Tea Company a monopoly on American tea trade because it is nearly bankrupt • Tea prices would be cheaper (even with tax), but Americans reacted angrily and saw Tea Act as a way to trick colonies into accepting the tax by lowering tea prices • Boston Tea Party (12/16/1773): Sons of Liberty, dressed as Native Americans, boarded three ships, smashed 342 chests open, and dumped tea into harbor

Tea Act crisis, continued • “Intolerable Acts” (Coercive Acts), 1774: Parliament passes the Coercive Acts to punish Boston • Boston Port Act: harbor remained closed until damages were paid and law and order restored • MA charter is revoked and crown forbade town meetings (except for election of town officials) • Enforcing officials who killed colonists could now be tried in England instead of the colonies (thereby avoiding colonial justice) • Quartering Act: provided for the quartering of troops once again in Boston

Quebec Act, 1774 • Coincidentally accompanied Coercive Acts but was NOT intended to punish colonies • French in Canada were guaranteed right to practice Catholicism and Quebec territory extended down to OH River, next to NY and PA • French allowed to keep old customs and institutions which did not include representative assemblies or trial by jury • Colonial reaction: viewed this act as attempt to create a new French Canadian and Amerindian threat to OH Valley region and anti-Catholic sentiment roused

First Continental Congress, 1774 • In response to “Intolerable” acts, committees of correspondence urged colonies to act quickly • Bostonians agreed to end all trade with Britain and urged others to join • First Continental Congress deliberated fall of 1774 • 12 of 13 colonies present (not GA) • Delegates included Sam Adams, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, Patrick Henry

FCC, 1774 • Denounced Intolerable Acts • Urged colonies to organize militia for defensive purposes • Called on colonies to suspend all trade with rest of British empire • Urged citizens to avoid paying taxes • Complete boycott of British goods • Petition (Declaration and Resolves) made to air grievances, reiterate allegiance to King, and to demand right to assemble in order to seek redress • King and Parliament do not respond, as this would have legitimized Congress and recognized its right as a legislative body

Lexington and Concord • “Shot Heard Round the World” • Parliament now orders Gen. Gage (MA gov.) to arrest leaders of rebellion and prepare for military action • April 1775, 700 British redcoats sent secretly to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize gunpowder and arrest S. Adams and J. Hancock; Paul Revere and William Dawes warn the militia • The battle begins when Minutemen refuse to disperse and shots are exchanged – later, at Concord, the British are forced to retreat

British Strengths and Weaknesses • Strengths: • Population favored GB (7.5 million v 2.5 million colonials) • Superior monetary advantage and best navy in world • 20K slaves in Carolinas and GA joined Brits (slaves promised freedom and many fled with Brits post-war) • Many Amerindians sided with Brits and attacked along the frontier (saw Proc. Of 1763 as sole attempt to stem tide of settlement) • Brits possess a 50K professional army and hired additional 30K “Hessians” as mercenaries

British Weaknesses • Enormous distance from GB to colonies • America too large for GB’s army to effectively occupy; population too dispersed • Brit generals in America were poor leaders • Many British troops did not want to kill Americans, who they saw as their countrymen • Provisions for army are poor • Americans would win with just a tie, whereas Britain would have to win outright • France was waiting for an opportunity to exact revenge • British gov’t was ineffective and internal struggle between Whigs (more liberal) and conservative Tories weakened support

American Strengths • Outstanding leadership (e.g. George Washington as military leader and Ben Franklin, diplomat) • Economic aid from France at outset, later economic aid is decisive • Defensive military tactics worked • Agriculturally self-sustaining • Colonials are good marksmen, better than Brits • Moral advantage from belief in a just cause

American Weaknesses • Badly organized for war and lacked real unity from the beginning (Continental Congress was weak and fought entire war without producing constitution) • Jealousy among colonies who each regarded themselves as sovereign and resisted Congressional weak power to lead • Economic difficulties (little specie; little to pay soldiers; little money circulation) • Militia unreliable and under-armed

Second Continental Congress • Meets on May 10, 1775 • All 13 colonies present, delegates still not interested in independence but rather in redress of grievances • Most significant act was to go to war and to select G. Washington as head of Continental Army • Drafted 2nd set of appeals to King and Brits to resolve issues as well as the last-ditch effort to salvage relationship, Olive Branch Petition • King refuses to acknowledge either

Declaration of Independence • Most citizens did not want independence and were proud to be British citizens • But hiring of Hessians, burning of Falmouth and Norfolk by British, as well as promising slaves freedom alienates colonials • Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) • King was “royal brute” • Argued that nowhere else in universe did a smaller body control a larger one – why should tiny Britain control huge North America?

Declaration of Independence • June 7, 1776, Philadelphia Congress: Richard Henry Lee proposed independence • Motion adopted on July 2, 1776 • Congress appointed a Committee on Independence to prepare an appropriate statement shortly after Lee’s appeal – they choose T. Jefferson • Declaration of Independence formally approved on July 4, 1776

Declaration of Independence • 3 major parts: preamble, list of grievances and formal declaration of independence • Preamble: states rights of colonists to break away if natural rights were violated: life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness (property) • List of 27 grievances of the colonies: charges King with imposing taxes without consent, eliminating trial by jury, military dictatorship, maintaining standing armies in peacetime, cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring mercenaries, and inciting Amerindian violence • Formal declaration: officially broke ties with England and United States now officially an independent country

Patriots and Loyalists • John Adams claimed that 1/3 of colonists were Patriot, 1/3 were Loyalists, and 1/3 were neutral • Loyalists: wanted to return to colonial rule and were mostly conservative, educated, and wealthy and especially feared “mob rule”; 80K flee colonies and their confiscated holdings are sold to help finance war • Patriots: sometimes called “whigs” (after liberal British party) and were mostly rebels who fought both soldiers and Loyalists, mostly found in New England

Articles of Confederation (1777) • Drafted by John Dickinson and set up by 2nd Continental Congress in order to create a lasting gov’t • Did not go into effect until 1781 and was first constitution in U.S. history and lasted until 1789 when the Constitution was formally adopted • Congress had power to: conduct war, handle foreign relations and secure loans as well as borrow money • Congress DID NOT have power to: regulate trade, conscript troops, levy taxes

Peace • British ready to come to terms after both losing big in their other conflicts abroad and when Tories are replaced by more sympathetic Whigs • Treaty of Paris, 1783: Britain formally recognizes US independence • Grants US huge boundaries stretching to MS River in the west, the Great Lakes in the north, and to Spanish FL in the south • Americans concede that Loyalists will not be further prosecuted, that Congress will consider returning confiscated Loyalist holdings and that American states are bound to pay back debts to British creditors • America does not comply with many of these concessions and it later becomes partial cause of War of 1812 • America alone gains from this war: France becomes bankrupt, Britain loses territory and face, Spain gains nothing

American Society During the War • Over 250K American soldiers fought: 10% died, the largest % of any American war in history • War economy: all of society became involved in war effort • Poorest Americans do most of the fighting • African Americans fought on both sides of conflict • Natives fought on both sides as well • Women managed farms and businesses while men served; many traveled with armies as laundresses, nurses and cooks; women were more politically active and expressed thoughts more freely

Memory Aid for Events Leading up to Revolution • Pretty (Proc. Of 1763) • Silly (Stamp Act, 1765) • Tammy (Townshend Acts, 1767) • Baked (Boston Massacre, 1770) • Tea (Tea Act, 1773) • Cookies (Committees of Correspondence) • Inside (Intolerable Acts, 1774) • Freshly (First Continental Congress) • Layered (Lexington and Concord) • Spicy (Second Continental Congress) • Dough (Declaration of Independence)

The Road to Independence