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Chapter 1 Microcomputers and Microprocessors

Chapter 1 Microcomputers and Microprocessors. Microprocessor Evolution and Performance. Contents. Introduction to microcomputer system Microprocessor evolution the INTEL processor family Microprocessor performance. Introduction to Microcomputer.

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Chapter 1 Microcomputers and Microprocessors

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  1. Chapter 1 Microcomputers and Microprocessors Microprocessor Evolution and Performance

  2. Contents • Introduction to microcomputer system • Microprocessor evolution • the INTEL processor family • Microprocessor performance

  3. Introduction to Microcomputer • An microcomputer can be interpreted as a machine with: • I/O devices for Input/Output, • microprocessor for processing, • memory units for storage • Buses for connecting the above components • In 1970, a microcomputer was normally interpreted as a computer considerably smaller than a mini-computer, possibly using ROM for program storage

  4. Basic hardware units • Input • e.g. keyboard, mouse • Microprocessor • e.g. 8085, 8086, mc68000 microprocessors • Memory • e.g. RAM, hard disk • Output • e.g. monitor, printer

  5. Buses • Buses: External connections to input/output unit • Major Buses: • Address bus: address of memory locations containing instructions or data • Data bus: contents of memory locations • Control Bus: synchronization and handshaking between components

  6. General Architecture Memory Unit Primary memory Secondary memory Microprocessing unit Input unit Output unit

  7. Processor History Vacuum Tubes to IC’s

  8. First Generation Computers • Vacuum tube technology • Large room, air-conditioned • Tube life-time: 3,000 hours • Useless Machine? • 1951: 1st Univac I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) delivered • 1952: Prediction of presidential election by CBS • 1952: IBM Model 710 Data Processing System

  9. Second Generation Computers • The Transistor Is Born (Solid-State Era) • 1948: invention of bipolar transistors • 1956: Nobel physics award: Drs. William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain (Bell Labs) • 1954: Bell Labs: all-transistorized computer (TRADIC) • 800 transistors • Much less heat • More reliable and less costly

  10. Second Generation Computers • Mainframe Computers • 1958: IBM’s 1st transistorized computer 7070/7090 • 1959: 1401 (business-oriented model) • Built on circuit boards mounted into rack panels, or frames • Main frame (mainframe): the CPU portion of the computer • Popular with business and industry

  11. Third Generation Computers • Invention of IC: 1959 • Dr. Robert Noyce (Fairchild) and Jack Kilby (TI) • Kilby: fabricating resistors, capacitors and transistors on a germanium wafer, and connecting these parts with fine gold wires • Noyce: isolating individual components with reverse-biased diodes, and deposing an adherent metal film over the circuit, thus connecting the components • 1st IC: 2-transistor multivibrator • By mid 1960s: memory chips with 1,000 components are common

  12. Third Generation Computers • 1964: IBM 360 Series (32-bit) • The first to use IC technology • A family of 6 compatible computers • 40 different I/O and auxiliary storage devices • Memory capacity: 16K words to over 1MB. • 32-bit registers x 16 • 24-bit address bus • 128-bit data bus

  13. Third Generation Computers • 1964: IBM 360 Series (32-bit) • 375,000 computations per second • (<< 150 mips Pentium 100) • $5 billion development cost • IBM became the leading mainframe company

  14. Minicomputer • 1960s: Space Race between US & USSR • IC industry boom • A tremendous demand by scientists and engineers for an inexpensive computer that they could operate by themselves • 1965: DEC PDP-8 (by Edson de Castro’s group) • Low-cost ($25,000) minicomputer • 12-bit • 16-bit PDP-11 • Supermini …

  15. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 1968: INTEL (Integrated Electronics) • Founded by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore (Fairchild) • Original goals: semiconductor memory market • 1969: customized IC’s for Busicom for calculator • Ted Hoff and Stan Mazor: proposed 4-bit CPU on a single chip, plus ROM, RAM chips

  16. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 1971: 4000 Family • By Fredrico Faggin • 4001: 2K ROM with 4-bit I/O port • 4002: 320-bit RAM, 4-bit output port • 4003: 10-bit serial-in parallel-out shift register • 4004: 4-bit processor • Processor-on-a-chip: Micro-processor era

  17. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 1972: 8008, 8-bit • 1974: 8080, an improved version

  18. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 8-bit CPUs • 16-bit address (64K) • MC6800: Motorola • 6502: MOS Technology (spin-off from Motorola) • Apple-II, Apple DOS • Z-80: Zilog (spin-off from Intel) • Z-80 cards on Apple-II, CP/M

  19. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 16-bit CPUs (Late 1970s) • 8086, 80186, 80286: Intel • PC, PC-DOS, MS-DOS, SCO-Unix • MC68000: Motorola • 16-bit instructions • Hardware multiply and divide • 20-bit address buses (1MB) • Workstations: Sun3

  20. Microprocessors: CPU on a Chip • 32-bit CPUs • 80386, 80486: Intel • MC68020, 68030: Motorola • 64-bit CPUs • Pentium, Pentium Pro (64-bit external data bus, 32-bit internal registers, not recognized as 64-bit CPUs in terms of internal register word length)

  21. Microcomputers: Computers Based on Microprocessors • 1975: MITS Altair 8800 (Kit) • $399, i8080, programmed by depositing 1s/0s via front panel switches • Other Computers boom • 8080: MITS, … • 6800: SWTPC 6800, … • Z-80: TRS-80, … • 6502: Apple I, 8K, programmed with BASIC • Steve Jobs & Steve Wozniak, millionaires from PC COM’s …

  22. Personal Computers: the Open Architecture Era • 1982: IBM PC • A system board (mother board) • Intel 8088 processor • 16K memory • 5 expansion slots • Third-party vendors to supply various IO adapter cards • Open architecture • Computer with interchangeable components

  23. Micro-controllers: Microcomputers on a Chip • Microcontroller: a computer on a chip • Microprocessor, plus • On-chip memory, plus • Input/output ports • 1995: microcontrollers out sold microprocessors 10:1 • embedded on various equipments: • Thermostat, machine tools, communication, automotive, … • Evolution: getting greater IO capabilities • Intel: MCS-51, MCS-96, …

  24. High-Performance Processors • Supercomputers • Aircraft design, global climate modeling, oil-bearing formation, molecular design of new drugs, financial behavior • CDC6600, 7600: Seymour Cray • Cray-1: 1976, the first true supercomputer • ECL, 128 KW power consumption • 130 MFLOPS (Pentium 100: 150 MFLOPS) • $5.1 million

  25. High-Performance Processors • Parallel Processors • Tens of gigaflops • Multi-processors wired by a common bus • Each is given a portion of the problem to solve • Hypercube: early 1980s • Cosmic Cube, iPSC (with i860/RISC chips) • 2D rectangular Mesh architecture: multiple processor at each node • Intel: teraflops computer with 4500 nodes, each powered by 2 Pentium Pro 200.

  26. RISC vs. CISC • RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer (1980s) • A small number of fixed-length instructions • Simple addressing modes • A large number of registers • Instructions executed in one clock cycle • Intel i860 (“Cray on a Chip”) • 82 instructions, 32-bit long each • Four addressing modes • 32 general-purpose registers

  27. RISC vs. CISC • CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computer • A large number of variable length instructions • Multiple addressing modes • A small number of registers • Multiple number of clock cycles to execute • Intel 8086 • Over 3000 instruction forms, 1-6 bytes • 9 addressing modes • 8 general-purpose registers • Execution from 2 to 80+ cycles

  28. RISC vs. CISC • RISC • Control unit is much simpler (simpler instructions, execution in 1 CLK) • Faster execution with less total on-chip logic • Chip area: 10% (vs 50% for CISC) • More area for register file, data and instruction caches, FPU, and co-processor • PowerPC: 32-bit, by IBM, Apple, Motorola • Sparc: for SunMicro workstations

  29. Application-Specific Processors • DSP Chips • Mostly for analog signal processing • ADC-DSP-DAC architecture • Avoid processing analog signals using discrete circuits, involving capacitors and inductance • DSP: conduct complex mathematic functions • Digital filter, spectrum analysis

  30. Application-Specific Processors • DSP Chip Architecture • Different data/program areas: Harvard Architecture • Hardware multipliers and adders, optimized to execute on a single cycle • Arithmetic pipelining: several instructions operated at once • Hardware loop control • Multiple IO ports for communication with other processors

  31. Summary of Processor History • 1940s: Vacuum tube, large and consuming large power • 1950s: Transistor (1948-) • 1959: First IC (second industrial revolution) • 1960s: IC was popular to build CPU’s. • 1971: Intel 4004 microprocessor (2300 transistors) Starts of the microprocessor age • Late 1970’s: 8080/85

  32. Summary of Processor History • 1980: RISC (reduced instruction set computer) • CISC (complicated instruction set computer) vs. RISC • CISC family: Intel 80x86, Pentium; Motorola 68000 series • All others are RISC series.

  33. Evolution of INTEL Processors 4004 (’71)-Pentium Pro (’93-)

  34. INTEL • Integrated Electronics • 1968: founded by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore • IA: Intel Architecture (e.g, IA-16, IA-32, IA-64) since 8008 (’72) had became the de facto standard • Evolution: • Internal register sizes • External bus widths • Real, Protected, and Virtual 8086 modes

  35. 4-bit Processors • 4004 • first microprocessor • became available in 1971 • 4-bit microprocessor: • 4-bit registers & 4-bit data bus • #transistors: 2250 • Min. feature size: 10 microns • Address bus: 10 bits/1K • 0.06 MIPS (@ 0.108 MHz) • No internal cache

  36. 8080 8-bit Processors • 8008, 8080, 8085 • became available in 1974 • 8-bit microprocessor

  37. 8086: IA standard • Became available in 1978 • 16-bit data bus • 20-bit address bus (was 16-bit for 8080) • memory organization: 16 segments of 64KB (1 MB limit) • Re-organize CPU into BIU (bus interface unit) and EU (execution unit) • Allow fetch and execution simultaneously • Internal register expanded to 16-bit • Allow access of low/high byte separately

  38. 8086 • Hardware multiply and divide instructions • External math co-processor • Instruction set compatible with 8080/8085 • 8086: defined the 80x86 architecture

  39. 8086 • Not quite successful • 16-bit data bus: Requires two separate 8-bit memory banks • Memory chips were expensive

  40. 8088: PC standard • Became available in 1979, almost identical to 8086 • 8-bit data bus: for hardware compatibility with 8080 • 16-bit internal registers and data bus (same as 8086) • 20-bit address bus (was 16-bit for 8080) • BIU re-designed • memory organization: 16 segments of 64KB (1 MB limit) • Two memory accesses for 16-bit data (less efficient) • But less cost • 8088: used by IBM PC (1982), 16K-64K, 4.77MHz

  41. 80186, 80188: High Integration CPU • PC system: • 8088 CPU + various supporting chips • Clock generator • 8251: serial IO (RS232) • 8253: timer/counter • 8255: PPI (programmable periphial interface) • 8257: DMA controller • 8259: interrupt controller • 80186/80188: 8086/8088 + supporting functions • Compatible instruction set (+ 9 new instructions)

  42. 80286 • Became available in 1982 • used in IBM AT computer (1984) • 16-bit data bus • clock speed 25% faster than 8088, throughput 5 times greater than 8088 • 24-bit address bus (16 MB) (vs. 20-bit/1M 8086)

  43. 80286: Real vs. Protected Modes • Larger address space: 24-bit address bus • Real Mode vs. Protected Mode • Real Mode: • Power on default mode • Function like a 8086: use 20-bit least significant address lines (1M) • Software compatible with 286 • 16 new instructions (for Protected Mode management) • Faster 286: redesigned processor, plus higher clock rate (6-8MHz)

  44. 80286: Real vs. Protected Modes • Protected Mode: • Multi-program environment • Each program has a predetermined amount of memory • Addressed via segment selector (physical addresses invisible): 16M addressable • Multiple programs loaded at once (within their respective segments), protected from read/write by each other

  45. 80286: Real vs. Protected Modes • Protected Mode: • Cannot be switch back to real mode to avoid illegal access by switching back and forth between modes • A faster 8086 only? • MS-DOS requires that all programs be run in Real Mode

  46. Clock Speed • Electrical signals cannot change instantaneously (transition period required) • System clock provides timing signal for synchronization • Cannot be used to compare the performance of microprocessors with different instruction sets • e.g., a 66 MHz Pentium is twice as fast as a 66 MHz 80486

  47. 80386DX (aka. 80386) • available in 1985, a major redesign of 86/286 • Compatibility commitment through 2000 • 32-bit data and address buses (4 GB memory) • Real Address Mode: 1M visible, 286 real mode • Protected Virtual Address Mode: • On board MMU • Segmented tasks of 1byte to 4G bytes • Segment base, limit, attributes defined by a descriptor register • Page swapping: 4K pages, up to 64TB virtual memory space • Windows, OS/2, Unix/Linux

  48. 80386DX (aka. 80386) • Virtual 8086 mode (a special Protected mode feature): permitted multiple 8086 virtual machines-multitasking (similar to real mode) • Windows (multiple MSDOS’s) • Clock rate: • max. 40MHz, 2 pulses per R/W bus cycle • External memory cache to avoid wait • Fast SRAM • 93% hit rate with 64K cache • Compatible instructions (14 new)

  49. 80386SX • 80386SX: (for transition to 32-bit) • 16-bit data bus/32-bit register • 24-bit address bus

  50. 80486DX • 1989: a polished 386, 6 new OS level instructions • virtually identical to 386 in terms of compatibility • RISC design concepts • fewer clock cycles per operation, a single clock cycle for most frequently used instructions • Max 50MHz • 5 stage execution pipeline • Portions of 5 instructions execute at once

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