Chapter 13: Leadership

1. Chapter 13: Leadership PSYC 352

2. Overview • Leadership vs. management • Major topics in leadership • Theoretical approaches to leadership • Points of convergence among approaches • Cross-cultural leadership issues • Diversity issues in leadership • Concluding comments

3. Mintzberg (1973) stated that leadership was merely a form or subset of management. Leadership vs. Management • Minzberg also suggested that managers had the following roles or functions: • Figurehead • Negotiator • Liaison • Monitor • Disseminator • Spokesman • Entrepreneur • Distribution handler • Resource allocator

4. Leadership vs. Management • Other researchers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985) suggest that there are differences between leaders and managers. • “To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to consider!” • “Leading is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, opinion.” • Leaders are people who do the right thing.

5. Major Topics in Leadership • Positional power: higher position = more power • The leader: characteristics of leaders • The led: characteristics of followers • The influence process: coercion, manipulation, authority, persuasion • Types of leader behavior: instrumental, supportive • The situation: characteristics of situation • Leader emergence versus leader effectiveness: how do leaders emerge, why are they effective?

6. Theoretical Approaches to Leadership • The trait approach • The behavioral approach • The power and influence approach • The situational approach • Transformational leadership • Charismatic leadership • The implicit leadership theory • Substitutes for leadership

7. 1. The Trait Approach Thomas Carlyle (1907) commented that“the history of the world was the biography of great men” • Focuses on: • Personal attributes: high energy level, tolerance for stress, emotional maturity, integrity, self-confidence • Motivation: need for power, achievement, affiliation • Skills: technical, conceptual, interpersonal

8. 2. The Behavioral Approach • Emphasizes what leaders actually do on the job. • 2 lines of research: • Classification of leadership behaviors into categories • Identification of behaviors related to leadership effectiveness

9. 2. The Behavioral Approach How to Classify Behavior? • Ohio State researchers (1950) • Initiating structure (task-oriented) • Consideration (people-oriented) • Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990) • 11 generic categories of leadership behavior • Networking • Supporting • Managing conflict and team building • Motivating • Recognizing and rewarding • Planning and organizing • Problem solving • Consulting and delegating • Monitoring • Informing • Clarifying

10. 3. Power and Influence Approach • Emphasizes the use of power and influence exercised by a person within a group • 3 major topics • Power and leader effectiveness • LMX theory • Influence tactics

11. 3. Power and Influence: Power and Leader Effectiveness • 5 types of power (French & Raven, 1960): • Reward • Coercive • Legitimate • Expert • Referent • 3 outcomes of power: • Commitment • Compliance • Resistance • Empirical research

12. 3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) • Emphasizes the nature of the relationship between a leader and her/his subordinates • Leaders differentiate subordinates by: • Competence and skill • Extent to which they can be trusted • Motivation to assume greater responsibility

13. 3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) • Leaders develop relationships with each member of their work group (dyads) • High qualityrelationships: member of “in-group;” greater responsibility, satisfaction • Low quality relationships: member of “out-group;” less responsibility, satisfaction • Psychological bases for exchange: • Personal contribution • Loyalty • Affect • Professional respect

14. 3. Power and Influence:Influence Tactics • 9 influencing tactics: • Rational persuasion • Inspirational appeals • Consultation • Ingratiation • Personal appeals • Exchange • Coalition tactics • Legitimating tactics • Pressure • Empirical research results

15. 4. Situational Approach • Emphasizes situational factors (e.g., nature of work performed, attitudes of subordinates) that promote the occurrence of leadership • Path-goal theory: emphasizes the importance of telling followers what behaviors are needed in order to attain desired outcomes (House, 1971)

16. 4. Situational Approach: Path-Goal Theory • Leader must manifest 4 styles of behavior: • Directive • Supportive • Participative • Achievement oriented • Leaders can influence subordinates’ perceptions of jobs by: • Removing obstacles from path to desired goal • Rewarding goal attainment • Helping clarify paths to goals • Conceptual limitations of theory

17. 5. Transformational Leadership • Leadership is the process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results. • 4 components: • Idealized influence • Inspirational motivation • Intellectual stimulation • Individualized consideration • Transformational leadership is strongly related to work unit effectiveness; especially idealized influence(Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996)

18. 6. Charismatic Leadership • Follower perception that a leader possesses a divinely inspired gift (charisma) and is unique and larger than life, which inspires confidence and support (in followers) for the ideas and beliefs of the leader • Behaviors typical of charismatic leaders: • Impression management • Articulation of appealing vision • Communication of high expectations • Expression of confidence • Negative charismatics

19. 7. Implicit Leadership Theory • Leadership exists only in the mind of the follower. • Individuals have an idea of what a leader should look like; they evaluate actual leaders based on this idea (Lord, Foti, & Phillips, 1982). • Problems with measurement

20. 8. Substitutes for Leadership • Idea that there are other influences that can act in place of, or substitute for, formal leadership • Four environmental sources that provide structure and direction (Pierce et al., 1984): • The job itself • Technology • Work unit • Leader

21. Points of Convergence among Approaches • Importance of influencing and motivating • Importance of maintaining effective relationships • Importance of making decisions

22. Cross-Cultural Leadership Issues • Japanese vs. American managers (Graen & Wakabayashi, 1994): • Language differences • Japanese perception that Americans have underdeveloped sense of obligation to company • Americans do not understand Japanese tendency to not use punishment for insubordination • Americans see lack of perks as loss of status • Americans do not spend entire career in one company • There is not a single conceptualization of leadership

23. Diversity Issues in Leadership • Most research is based on white men • Reasons for gender differences in leadership: • Cultural • Biases • Gender differences in evaluation: • Tendency for women to be evaluated lower • More so when when their leadership style was stereotypically masculine • More so when evaluators were women • Women experience more barriers in leadership (Lyness & Thompson, 2000)

24. Conclusion • New trends in leadership: • Managing a diverse workforce • Leaders are not only heroes, but “hero makers”