Patterns and Interactions in Ecological Systems

1. Fig. 54-1

2. EXPERIMENT High tide Chthamalus Chthamalus realized niche Balanus Balanus realized niche Fig. 54-3 Ocean Low tide RESULTS High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean Low tide

3. G. fuliginosa G. fortis Beak depth Los Hermanos 60 Fig. 54-4 40 G. fuliginosa, allopatric 20 0 Daphne 60 40 Percentages of individuals in each size class G. fortis, allopatric 20 0 Sympatric populations 60 Santa María, San Cristóbal 40 20 0 8 10 12 14 16 Beak depth (mm)

4. (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog (b) Aposematic coloration Fig. 54-5 Poison dart frog (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Hawkmoth larva (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other. Cuckoo bee Green parrot snake Yellow jacket

5. Fig. 54-6

6. Fig. 54-7 (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) (b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an acacia tree

7. Fig. 54-8

8. Quaternary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Tertiary consumers Fig. 54-11 Carnivore Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Primary consumers Herbivore Zooplankton Primary producers Plant Phytoplankton A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain

9. Humans Smaller toothed whales Sperm whales Baleen whales Fig. 54-12 Elephant seals Leopard seals Crab-eater seals Squids Fishes Birds Carnivorous plankton Euphausids (krill) Copepods Phyto- plankton

10. Fig. 54-13 Juvenile striped bass Sea nettle Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton

11. EXPERIMENT Fig. 54-15 RESULTS 20 With Pisaster (control) 15 Number of species present 10 Without Pisaster (experimental) 5 0 1963 ’64 ’65 ’66 ’67 ’68 ’69 ’70 ’71 ’72 ’73 Year

12. 100 80 60 Otter number (% max. count) 40 20 0 (a) Sea otter abundance Fig. 54-16 400 300 Grams per 0.25 m2 200 100 0 (b) Sea urchin biomass 10 8 Number per 0.25 m2 6 4 2 0 1972 1985 1989 1993 1997 Year (c) Total kelp density Food chain

13. Fig. 54-17

14. 35 30 Fig. 54-20 25 Number of taxa 20 15 10 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 Log intensity of disturbance

15. Fig. 54-21 (a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

16. 1941 Fig. 54-22-4 1907 2 Dryas stage Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 1 0 5 10 15 Kilometers 1860 Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 4 Spruce stage 3 Alder stage

17. 60 50 40 Fig. 54-23 Soil nitrogen (g/m2) 30 20 10 0 Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce Successional stage

18. Fig. 54-24

19. Fig. 54-27 Immigration Immigration Extinction Immigration Extinction Extinction (small island) (near island) (far island) (large island) Immigration Extinction Rate of immigration or extinction Rate of immigration or extinction Rate of immigration or extinction (large island) (far island) Extinction Immigration (near island) (small island) Near island Equilibrium number Far island Small island Large island Number of species on island Number of species on island Number of species on island (a) Immigration and extinction rates (b) Effect of island size (c) Effect of distance from mainland

20. 400 200 100 Fig. 54-28 50 Number of plant species (log scale) 25 10 5 10 100 103 104 105 106 Area of island (hectares) (log scale)

21. Fig. 54-30