Job Satisfaction A central but underestimated concept in the psychology of work

1. Job SatisfactionA central but underestimated concept in the psychology of work Norbert K. Semmer Universität Bern Giessen, January 8. 2002 University of Bern

2. Job Satisfaction: A concept not highly estimated Satisfaction: „... The most superficial and ambiguous of all feelings....“ Frese (1990) Frese, M. (1990). Arbeit- und Emotion – Ein Essay. In F. Frei & I. Udris (Hrsg.), Das Bild der Arbeit (S. 285-301). Bern: Huber University of Bern

3. Job Satisfaction: A concept not highly estimated Job Satisfaction as expression of „unhappiness without any aspirations“ Neuberger, 1980 University of Bern

4. Topics • Arguments against the concept of job satisfaction • Arguments against the objections • Job Satisfaction as result of an overall evaluation • Conceptionel and empirical differentiations • Conclusion University of Bern

5. Objections • High rates of satisfaction are not credible • Associations with performance are weak • Depends more on personality than on working conditions University of Bern

6. Objection 1: Unrealistically high rates of satisfaction • Typically, at least 75% are „satisfied“ (= 4 or 5 on a five-point Likert scale) University of Bern

7. Example:Job satisfaction of sales women    74% 20% 6% Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland. University of Bern

8. High rates of satisfaction:Explanations offered • People deceive the researchers (e.g., because of fear of a lack of anonymity) • People deceive themselves (reduction of cognitive dissonance) • It‘s all a meaningless ritual – answers are given in accordance with social conventions • („How are you? – fine, thanks...“) • People have reduced their aspirations(Resignation) University of Bern

9. High rates are not credible: Data Questions like: „Would you choose the same occupation again? “ or „Would you recommend this profession to your son or daughter?“ Yield noticably lower values (about 45% yes) University of Bern

10. Objection 2: Negligible association with performance Meta-Analyse by Iaffaldano & Muchinsky (1985): Corrected mean correlation: r = .17 Iaffaldano, M.T., & Muchinsky, P.M. (1985). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273. University of Bern

11. Objection 3Characteristic of the person? • Staw, Bell & Clausen (1986): Affective Dispo-sition in adolescenced and job satisfaction 50 years later: r = .34. • Staw & Ross (1985): Stability between 1966 and 1971 between r = .37 and .48. • Arvey et al. (1989): 30% of the variance is genetically determined (twin studies). Staw, B. M., Bell, N. E., & Clausen, J. A. (1986). The dispositional approach to job attitudes: A lifetime longitudinal test. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 56-77. Staw, B. M., & Ross, J. (1985). Stability in the midst of change: A dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 469-480.Arvey, R. D., Bouchard, T. J., Segal, N. L., & Abraham, L. M. (1989). Job satisfaction: environmental and genetic components. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 187-192. University of Bern

12. Arguments regarding objection 1: High rates not credible? • Research on general well-being yields comparably high rates (Staudinger, 2000).  Argument of anonymity not convincing • Older people often report better working conditions (Spector, 1997).  not only resignation! • Why should on deceive oneself and others regarding questions on satisfaction but not regarding questions about recommendations?? Staudinger, U.M. (2000). Viele Gründe sprechen dagegen, und trotzdem geht es vielen Menschen gut: Das Paradox des subjektiven Wohlbefindens. Psychologische Rundschau, 51 185-197. Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, cause, and consequences. London: Sage. University of Bern

13. Arguments concerning objection 2: Association with performance negligible? Iaffaldano & Muchinsky (1985):Corrected correlation over all studies:r = .17 But:Studies using well established instruments concerning overall satisfaction (e.g, DI / MSQ): r = .29 Petty et al. (1984): .31 Judge et al. (2001): .30 Iaffaldano, M.T., & Muchinsky, P.M. (1985). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273.Petty, M.M., McGee, G.W., & Cavender, J.W. (1984). A meta-analysis of the relationships between individual job satisfaction and individual performance. Academy of Management Review, 9, 712-721.Judge, T.A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J.E., & Patton, G.K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376-407 University of Bern

14. Arguments concerning objection 3: Reflecting only disposition? • Elfering, Semmer & Kälin, 2000: Stability of job satisfaction over one year: .32 For „Stayers“: .41 For „Leavers“: .29 Controlling for personality characteristics: Hardly any change in stability (stayers: .43; leavers: .23) Stabilities for personality characteristics noticibly higher: r = .60 (Agreeableness) to .79 (Extraversion) • Dormann & Zapf (2000): Partialing out working conditions reduces stability of job satisfaction to zero. Elfering, A., Semmer, N. & Kälin, W (2000). Stability and change in job satisfaction at the transition from vocational training into „real work“. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 59, 256-271. Dormann, C. & Zapf, D. (2001). Job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of stabilities. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 483-504. University of Bern

15. Conceptual issues: Definitions • Job satisfaction as a „pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‘s job or job experiences“ (Locke, 1976) versus • Job satisfaction as Attitude(involving the weighting of pro‘s and con‘s)e.g. Spector (1997) Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 1297-1350). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally (p. 1300). Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, cause, and consequences. London: Sage. University of Bern

16. Job Satisfaction and turnover within one year(voluntary quitting in per cent)(Computer specialists - Baillod & Semmer, 1994) r = .37 Baillod, J. & Semmer, N. (1994). Fluktuation und Be-rufsverläufe bei Computer-fachleuten (Turonver and professional careers among computer specialists). Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 38, 152-163. n = 143 n = 134 n = 153 n = 139 University of Bern

17. stay-stay stay-leave (n=272) (n=40) 4.5 4.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3 leave-leave leave-stay (n=40) (n=73) 4.5 4.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3 Job Satisfaction and Turnover(Computer Specialists) Semmer, N. & Schallberger, U. (1996).Selection, Socialization, and mutual adaptation: Resolving discrepancies between people and their work. "Applied Psychology": An International Review,45, 263-288. University of Bern

18. Turnover and the Development of Job Satisfaction among Computer Specialists more than a yearbefore the change more than a yearbefore the change less than a yearbefore the change less than a yearafter the change more than a yearafter the change Stadler, R. (1994). Berufliche Veränderungen bei Computerfachleuten (Career changes among computer specialists). Unpublished Master‘s Thesis, University of Bern, Switzerland. University of Bern

19. General Job Satisfaction and Turnover Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001).Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and conse-quences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland University of Bern

20. Predicting voluntary turnover for different motivations to quit Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001).Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and consequences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland University of Bern

21. Changes in Job Satisfaction Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001).Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and consequences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland University of Bern

22. Forms of Job Satisfaction(Bruggemann, 1974) COMPARISON: perceived reality - personal goals Stabilising SATISFACTION Diffuse DISSATISFACTION Raising of Standards Keeping of Standards Lowering of Standards Keeping of Standards ResignativeJobSatisfaction No Problem-Solving Attempts Problem-Solving Attempts Distortion of Reality ProgressiveJobSatisfaction StabilizedJobSatisfaction Pseudo – JobSatisfaction FixatedJobDissatisfaction ConstructiveJob Dissatisfaction After Bruggemann, A. (1974). Zur Unterscheidung verschiedener Formen von "Arbeitszufriedenheit" (Distinguishing different forms of job satisfaction). Arbeit und Leistung, 28, 281-284. University of Bern

23. Resigned attitude towards work(after Oegerli, 1984) • My work is not ideal but after all, it could be worse • Quitting my job would imply even more disadvantages; so I stay in spite of all • It is best to swallow one‘s anger when bothered by something at work • As an employee one really cannot expect a lot Oegerli, K. (1984). Arbeitszufriedenheit: Versuch einer qualitativen Bestimmung. Unveröfftl. Dissertation, Universität Bern, Philosophisch-historische Fakultät. University of Bern

24. Job satisfaction and resignation in four samples General job satisfaction Resignation Comp = Computer scientists (Baillod, 1994) Arch = Architects (unpublished data, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology Sales = Saleswomen (Stalder, 1989) Secr = Secretaries (Ruch, 1985) Baillod, J. (1992). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten (Turnover among computer specialists). Bern: Lang. Ruch, L. (1985). Strukturvergleich im Sekretariatsbereich (A comparison or working structures among secretaries). Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Bern, Department of Psychology. Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland. University of Bern

25. Forms of job satisfaction & Health Complaints(Saleswomen) Sat+/Res- significantly different from all other groups Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland. University of Bern

26. Forms of Job Satisfaction & Intention to Quit(Computer Specialists) Sat+/Res- significantly different from all other groups Baillod, J. (1992). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten (Turnover among computer specialists). Bern: Lang. University of Bern

27. Forms of job satisfaction and well-being: Irritation among job beginners(Young Workers from five occupations, t1) Unpublished data, Aequas-Study, University of Bern,Psychology of Work and Organizations University of Bern

28. Forms of job satisfaction and well-being: Irritation among job beginners(Young Workers from five occupations, t2) p < .10 t2, n = 632 Unpublished data, Aequas-Study, University of Bern,Psychology of Work and Organizations University of Bern

29. General Job Satisfaction and resigned attitude towards work: Associations with third variables University of Bern

30. Resigned attitude and „unwinding“:Changes inadrenalin in the evening compared to the end of work (in per cent) Res - Res + Res - Res + t1 t2 Aequas sub-project Bern, unpublished data University of Bern