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Relevant Themes. Form of Business entity: Proportional regulationRole and Responsibility of Actors: Promoters; Directors and ShareholdersCorporate Governance: Normative framework to Enforcement mechanismsProcess and Procedure of Corporate Restructuring: Transparency requirements. Formation of
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1. CORPORATE LAW AND GOVERNANCE A. B. Suraj
PGP – Business Law
2. Relevant Themes Form of Business entity: Proportional regulation
Role and Responsibility of Actors: Promoters; Directors and Shareholders
Corporate Governance: Normative framework to Enforcement mechanisms
Process and Procedure of Corporate Restructuring: Transparency requirements
3. Formation of a Company Company = organization of persons and funds for common purpose
Only an Incorporation makes it a legal entity – registration under Companies Act, 1956 – conclusive proof of valid formation
Memorandum and Articles of Association – also shareholder’s agreement
4. Promoter of a Company Promoter = one who promotes the formation of the company – entrepreneur
Personally liable for contracts before completion of the incorporation process
Fiduciary relationship – and legitimate expenses are payable – “sweat equity”
5. Objects Clause MoA – Main, Ancillary and Other Objects
Investor protection and as caution to outsiders – Doctrine of Ultra Vires – exceeding the legal power
Ultra vires actions are not binding on the Company – however beneficial they are
6. Articles of Association For internal management – rules for day-to-day activities
Rule of Constructive notice = presumed knowledge of the AoA by anybody dealing with the Company
Rule of “indoor management” – an exception – of procedural compliance – to protect external interests with reasonable efforts
7. Corporate Entity – Principles Independent of shareholders – Saloman case
Capacity to sue and to be sued
Perpetual succession; common seal; limited liability
Multiple relationships possible with an individual – Director, Creditor, Shareholder, Employee
8. Company Contracts Company can authorize any person to enter into contracts on its behalf – express or implied or ostensible authority
Even oral agreements – even without seal
Pre-incorporation contracts – valid only if ratified freshly by the Company
9. Role of Directors Board of Directors – Principal Body
Remuneration – generally not >11% of net profits
One Director – chosen for management – need not be a shareholder
Fiduciary Duty to take care – and statutory duties
Difference between ownership and control – elected and voting powers – except for nominees; government; debenture trustee
10. “Control” Controlling stake = treated as “Promoters”
Control Powers = Proactive (positive) and Reactive (Negative)
Regulation 2(1)(c) of the Takeover Code to “include the right to appoint majority of the directors or to control the management or policy decisions exercisable by a person or persons acting individually or in concert directly or indirectly, including by virtue of their shareholding or management rights or shareholders agreements or voting agreements or in any other manner”
Full and effective control – usually the Board of Directors
“Protective rights” of financial investors – Negative in nature
Board representation; quorum rights; supermajority rights
Not absolute; at best a veto power; usually by a single nominee
11. Corporate Veil Natural persons behind the legal entity
Commission of Crimes
Tax evasion
Fraudulent intent
To distinguish between holding and subsidiary
Where the Company is being used as an agent of the shareholders/directors
Corporate Criminal Liability principles – Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act, 2007 in UK = if Company is negligent - senior management liable
Whistleblower policy still at infancy in India
12. Criminal Liability … Tests for Prosecution of a Corporation:
Nature and seriousness of crime
Complicity and pervasiveness within the Company
History of similar conduct
Corporation’s timely, voluntary disclosure and cooperative efforts
Presence of a compliance and ethics code
Prosecution = combined efforts of the Corporation and the Investigating Authorities
Concern of “confidential information”
13. Criminal Liability … Rationale for Criminal liability = enormous influence on economy
Strict degree of Vicarious criminal liability – attribution of “collective mens rea” of Executives
Gross negligence or breach of duty
Test of “Organizational approach”
Applies to Partnerships/Trusts/Unions too
Statutory compliances also covered for liability
14. Criminal Liability … Fundamental Rights of a Corporation
Fair trial = Procedural safeguards
Issue of Political funding
Punishments for Corporations:
Restitution; Fines; Probation under Court supervision; Forfeiture clauses; and Public apologies
15. Culpability of Corporations Crime committed by an employee despite strong Corporate policy against it?
Crimes committed by contractors/ consultants?
Crimes committed in ignorance or wrong understanding of law?
Serious frauds committed by senior management?
16. Enforcement of Corporate Governance
17. Review of Managerial Decisions Concept of Fiduciary duty – different from “best practices”; norms; aspirations
Due care and good faith to be demonstrated in all actions
Interest of the company and law as an objective
Compliance requires fiduciary discharge of functions
Document actions/decisions extensively
18. Legal Duty of CareDirector Vs. An Agent Fiduciary in nature
Has to only benefit Company’s interest
Has to make up Losses caused + Profits made
Unequal position with shareholders
Responsible to minority shareholders and Society as well Contractual nature
Self-interest may also be served
Has to compensate only for the losses
Equal negotiating capacity of parties
Responsible only to the other Party
19. Elements of Corporate Governance In India – Clause 49 of the Listing Agreement between a Company and Stock Exchanges – introduced in 2000
In addition to other SEBI Rules and Regulations
In the US – Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act, 2002 – also known as Sarbanes-Oxley Act
DIP Guidelines of SEBI in 2000 itself
Accountability imposed on Public and Listed Companies – monitor aggregation of capital
20. Elements of Corporate Governance … Composition of the Board – 1/3rd to 50% of IDs on the basis of nature of leadership
Independent Directors – elaborate guidelines to determine ‘independence’
Qualified and Independent Audit Committee – for mainly Financial matters
Management Discussion and Analysis Report – on Company prospects as evaluated by the Board
CEO/CFO certifying compliance – by a declaration
21. Mandatory disclosures On related party transactions and “arm’s length” justifications
Accounting and Risk Management practices
Complete details of Directors’ remuneration – including Stock options; other perks and perquisites
Disclosure of any Contingent Liability
22. Trends in enforcement Moving from principles-based to rule-based
Weak regulatory oversight and monitoring
Prevalent management override
Empower IDs more – exclusive meetings
Minority shareholders – not strong despite legal powers
Skill sets of Auditors and Managers
Effectiveness of the Board of Directors needs to be evaluated
Risk management – no process in place
Remuneration of top management (CEOs)
Ethical values and their relevance/enforcement
CG specialists to be built as a professional team
23. Issues for Discussion Objective of Corporate Governance – “maximization of shareholder value” vs. “governance norms”
Various stakeholders’ interests – especially of a big company
Directors of a Company are like Ministers of the Government
Collective responsibility
Accountable to not only the enfranchised stakeholders
Enforceability of CG – adequacy of institutional and legal regime
SEBI is the only regulator
Corporate Social Responsibility – a much wider and timely initiative
OECD Guidelines and related mechanisms
24. Corporate Restructuring Companies Act – allows for any scheme of restructuring and reorganization of company
Internal restructuring/ Winding up/ M&As/ Takeover
Does not cover buy-back of shares; mere acquisition of property
Fairness is the basis for evaluating the entire process
Any arrangement facilitated – even if ultra vires the MoA Objects – benefit evaluated
“Fair value” – of assets and shares – contextual and based on relevant facts; no set rule or process
25. Restructuring … High Court to approve the scheme of merger
NCLT proposed as a single-window
“Fair, just and reasonable” review – not on merits
Public policy; Third Party interests (creditors, employees)
“Due diligence” based process
Fair disclosure of bases for valuation
“Best judgement” by BoD of the target
Regulated by Competition Law principles
26. Case Study – Issues Regulatory bodies in Indian Corporate Law
Ministry of Company Affairs; Company Law Board; High Court; SEBI; and the Competition Commission (in specific circumstances)
What if “foreign Companies” are involved?
“Public interest” domain – scope and content?
Validity and legitimacy of a personal contract and shareholder resolutions
Have not the Companies endorsed the Contract?
Remedy available for Minority shareholders?
IT benefits available only if transfer is by a minimum of 75% of the shareholders of the transferor – towards maintaining “majority” and “uniting of interests” and seamless continuity
27. Case Study – Issues … Standing of creditors and employees/ labour workforce
Not in decision-making; but in protection of interests
What if the transferor-Company is declared as being a Sick Company?
“Transfer” – of all assets and liabilities
Rights; IPRs; Privileges; Powers; beneficial Contracts
Does it amount to “Sale”? “Capital gains”?
Benefits of contracts? Status of Employees?