Pregnancy

2. Pregnancy • Pathology professionals help keep mothers and babies healthy • Antenatal and newborn screening tests are performed by pathologists and scientists • Pathology tests include blood tests for anaemia, diabetes and infections

3. Pregnancy • Some foods should not be eaten during pregnancy • Some should be avoided because of the risk of infection e.g. raw eggs, unpasteurised cheese, pâté • Others should be avoided because of the risk of toxicity e.g. liver, tuna

4. Pregnancy • Emma’s pregnancy was completely normal, with no complications • During her pregnancy she had over 20 pathology tests including a pregnancy test, screening for syphilis, rubella and HIV, tests for anaemia, Down’s syndrome and a test to determine her blood group

5. Pregnancy • In 2008 790,000 babies were born in the UK • The average age of mothers was 29 years • The average age of fathers was 32 years • 1 in 34 babies is born a twin or triplet

6. Antibiotics • Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections • Antibiotics don’t work against viruses so are no good for a cold or ‘flu’ • Taking antibiotics unnecessarily can result in bacteria becoming resistant to the antibiotic

7. Antibiotics • Preventing infection is an important role of pathologists • Until the last century many women died after giving birth from childbed fever • This was almost completely eradicated by better hygiene and the use of antibiotics

8. Antibiotics • John had a chest infection and went to see his GP • He was prescribed antibiotics but only took 3 days of the week’s course • His chest infection came back • It is important to take the full course of antibiotics, even if you feel better

9. Antibiotics • Listeriosis is an infection cause by Listeria monocytogenes • It is particularly harmful for pregnant women as it can cross the placenta and infect the baby • Listeria can contaminate food even if refrigerated e.g. soft cheese, pâté

10. Transfusion • Blood transfusions save thousands of lives every year, including mothers and babies • 8000 units of blood are used every day in the UK • Do you know your blood group? The most common is O positive

11. Transfusion • Blood transfusions may be given following blood loss during childbirth • Blood transfusions can even be given to babies before they are born • In some circumstances blood lost during a caesarian section can be given back to the mother

12. Transfusion • Gemma and her husband are both blood group A but she is rhesus negative and he is positive • Gemma was given an injection of anti-D to prevent serious illness in future pregnancies • Anti-D has saved thousands of babies

13. Transfusion • Almost anyone can become a blood donor • A unit of blood is 470ml • You can give blood every 4 months • All donated blood is tested for infections including HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis

14. Heart • Pathology is at the heart of modern healthcare • Over 70% of diagnoses in the NHS involve pathology • Pathologists and scientists help keep your heart healthy • Heart disease is the most common cause of death in the UK

15. Heart • This is a baby’s heart at 12 weeks’ gestation • The heart is already perfectly formed at this stage • The baby’s heart beats faster than the mother’s • Congenital heart disease affects around 1 in 100 babies

16. Heart • 1 in 5 people will die from coronary heart disease • Some pathologists perform post mortem (autopsy) examinations • Much of the knowledge about heart attacks has been gained from post mortems

17. Heart • Fred was admitted to hospital with pain in his chest • Pathology tests showed that he had had a heart attack and that his cholesterol level was high • Other risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure and inactivity

18. Ovum • An ovum is another name for an egg • The egg contains half the genetic information needed to make a baby • 1 in 6 couples suffer from infertility • Clinical embryologists help them conceive – using IVF or other techniques

19. Ovum • Clinical embryologists are scientists who specialise in the investigation and treatment of infertility • Nearly 2% of babies in the UK are born following assisted conception techniques such as IVF (in vitro fertilisation) • The first IVF baby was born in 1978

20. Ovum • Tracey and Tom lost their first baby to an inherited disease • They had IVF for their next pregnancy to make sure that their second child did not have the same illness • A healthy embryo was selected and now they have a bouncing baby boy

21. Ovum • Over 13,000 babies are born from IVF each year • Approximately 24% of IVF attempts are successful • 23% of IVF pregnancies result in more than one baby • The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority oversees all work involving human eggs, including IVF

22. Lab. coat • Many people think that all pathologists work in laboratories or mortuaries but that’s not the case • Many pathologists work on hospital wards and in outpatients clinics • Even lab-based pathologists are part of multidisciplinary teams

23. Lab. coat • The image of the mad scientist working in an isolated lab does not reflect reality • Scientists and pathologists work in teams and must have good communication skills • There are 20,000 scientists working in pathology in the UK

24. Lab. coat • Andrew is training to become a clinical scientist • Clinical scientists work in a wide range of pathology specialties including biochemistry, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, immunology, microbiology, histocompatibility and immunogenetics

25. Lab. coat • There are many different types of laboratory, reflecting the 19 pathology specialties • Many hospitals open their labs to the public during National Pathology Week • This is a great opportunity to meet pathologists and scientists and find out what goes on behind the scenes

26. Operation • Surgeons perform operations but pathologists examine the tissue removed • Histopathologists examine tissue with the naked eye and under the microscope • If you’ve had your appendix or a mole removed, a pathologist will have examined it

27. Operation • Nearly 20 million histology slides are examined in the UK every year • Special stains are used to identify particular tumours or infective organisms • Histopathologists are all doctors and undergo at least 8 further years of training after qualifying

28. Operation • Kelly’s baby was too big to be born naturally so she had a caesarian section • Pathology tests were performed to make sure that Kelly and her baby stayed healthy • Approximately 1 in 4 babies is born by caesarian section in the UK

29. Operation • Histopathology is a vital part of many people’s health care • Histopathologists diagnose cancer as well as less serious diseases • They are involved in screening for diseases such as cervical, breast and bowel cancer

30. Glucose • This represents a molecule of glucose, the sugar that provides fuel for the body • Clinical biochemists are pathology scientists who measure chemicals like glucose in the blood, urine or other body fluids • Glucose levels are controlled by the hormone insulin

31. Glucose • If the body doesn’t make enough insulin, diabetes may develop • Clinical biochemistry is essential for the management of diseases like diabetes • Other chemicals that are measured in the blood include sodium, calcium and cholesterol

32. Glucose • Penny has had diabetes since she was a child • She has got used to giving herself regular insulin injections • She measures her own blood sugar levels and varies the amount of insulin she injects

33. Glucose • Around 2.3 million people in the UK have been diagnosed with diabetes • It is thought that another 500,000 are not aware that they have the disease • Resistance to insulin occurs in all pregnant women – but only some develop diabetes

34. Y chromosome • Everyone has two sex chromosomes, which determine whether you’re male or female • Men have an X and a Y chromosome (XY) • Women have two X chromosomes (XX) • Many diseases have genetic causes

35. Y chromosome • Geneticists are pathologists who specialise in genetic disease • They can detect some diseases that run in families and predict who will be affected • There are more than 6000 known genetic diseases e.g. sickle cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis

36. Y chromosome • 3-4% of babies have a genetic disease or birth defect • 30% of children and 10% of adults in hospital are there because of genetically related disease • Many common diseases also have a genetic component e.g. diabetes, heart disease and cancer

37. Y chromosome • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease that particularly affects the lungs and gut • People with CF are more likely to get chest infections and digestion problems • Pathology tests can diagnose CF before, during or after pregnancy

38. The 19 pathology specialties include: • Histopathology • Haematology • Clinical biochemistry • Medical microbiology • Immunology

39. Forensic pathology • The best known pathology specialty • Is the specialty shown on TV • Is one of the smallest specialties • Involves less than 1% of pathologists

40. Pathology in the NHS: • Involves 20,000 scientists • And 7,000 pathologists • Uses 4% of the health budget • Is involved in 70% of diagnoses

41. Pathology tests are essential for the diagnosis and treatment of common diseases, for example: • Diabetes • Cancer • Heart disease

42. Pathology tests help keep mothers healthy, including testing for: • Anaemia • Infections • Rhesus incompatibility • Diabetes

43. Pathology tests help keep babies healthy, including testing for: • Cystic fibrosis • Thyroid disorders • Sickle cell anaemia • Metabolic disorders

44. Pathology is: • The study of disease • The science behind the cure • The heart of modern healthcare