Evolutionary Impact: From Spencer to James in American Psychology

1. Evolution Comes to America c. 1900 • American Psychology: More Darwin and Galton than Wundt and Titchener • Distinctive social, economic, and political character • Land Grant Colleges

2. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)and Social Darwinism • English philosopher who took America by storm • Leaders in business, science, politics, and religion viewed him as a redeemer • Darwin called him “our philosopher.”

3. Social Darwinism: The application of the Theory of Evolution to society • Spencer stretched Darwin’s theory significantly • Evolutionary development of all aspects of universe • Principle of “survival of the fittest” • Spencer coined the phrase!!! • Utopian view: human perfection inevitable if nothing interferes with the natural order

4. Social Darwinism • Individuals and institutions that fail to adapt should be allowed to perish • U.S. was the living example • Functional psychology and theory of evolution well-suited to the American temperament • Consequence: Spencer’s views permeated every learning area

5. Eugenics in US and Europe • American eugenecist Madison Grant proposed “Nordic Theory” wrote The Passing of the Great Race in 1916. • U.S. Supreme Court decision Buck vs. Bell (1927) ruled that the “feebleminded” could be sterilized against their will.

6. We were Hitler’s model society!! • “In North America, where the population is prevalently Teutonic, and where those elements intermingled with the inferior race only to a very small degree, we have a quality of mankind and a civilization which are different from those of Central and South America.” – Mein Kampf, 1924

7. From Darwin to Hitlerby Richard Weikart • Pre-Darwin and concurrent with social Darwinism, there was a movement in Europe to break from Judeo-Christian tradition. It seems that Darwin gave many of these movements the foundation they were desperately seeking. • Is this accurate? • RW: Yes, many materialists were jubilant when Darwin published his theory and immediately jumped on the Darwinist bandwagon. They used Darwinism as a club against their religious opponents. Karl Marx, for example, stated that Darwin provided the natural-historical foundation for his views.

8. Evolution of Machines • Anticipated complexity of 1890 U.S. Census • 1880 census: 1,500 clerks took seven years to hand-tally data reported in 21,000 page document • (1859-1929) invented punched card processor

9. Henry Hollerith’s System • 1890 Census • Machines counted holes and tabulated results • 62 million participated • Card capacity: 36 eight-bit bytes of information • Census completed in two years • Cost savings: $5 million • Can machines substitute for human cognitive function? • Hollerith sold the Company in 1911

11. Questions • Why are you taking a psychology class? • Awake under anesthesia. • What do drugs tell us about emotion?

12. William James (1842-1910): Anticipator of Functional Psychology General paradox • Pioneer of new scientific psychology in the United States • Another physician-turned-psychologist

13. William James Very wealthy all his life • Liberal upbringing and education • Extensive travel • Harvard-trained physician • Nervous breakdown/depression 1869 • Mind-altering drugs • Encountered the work of Helmholtz and Wundt – Decided to try Psychology • Back to Harvard in 1872

14. Neurasthenia Epidemic Described by George Beard (1860s) • A disease if the rich and educated • Insomnia, hypochondria, headache, rash, exhaustion, and “brain collapse” • Rexall: Americanitis Elixr • Treatment • Women: Six weeks of rest and food • Men: Travel and exercise

15. William James James at Harvard • Professor of Physiology (1872) • Promoted to Philosophy (1885) • “Promoted” to Psychology (1889) • He knew Wundt, but didn’t like him • Established Harvard’s Lab, but hated lab work • Finished Principles of Psychology in (1890) • Wundt didn’t like it…neither did James

16. What James Started • Rebelled against artificiality and narrowness of the Wundtian position • Introspection does not show elements exist independently of the observer: to think otherwise is the psychologists’ fallacy • Simple sensations do not exist in consciousness experience; they are inferred • Mental life is a unity

17. James’ Philosophy Pragmatism vs. Radical Empiricism • Pragmatism: Concepts must be judged on their “cash value.” The only theories, opinions, religions, that are true are those that demonstrate a clear benefit. • Radical Empiricism: If you can’t see it, don’t believe it!

18. Evolutionary Functions • Why do we have opposable thumbs? • How do they support survival and reproduction? • Why do we have the emotion of fear? • How does it support survival and reproduction? • Why do we believe in God? • How does it support survival and reproduction?

19. James’ Philosophy • Consciousness allows us to adapt to our environment and it isn’t composed of bits - It is continuous • Stream of Thought: There are no elementary sensations. • A thunder clap needs the surrounding silence • The continuous flow of consciousness allows us to maintain a sense of self

20. The Self • The material self: what we physically own, including our body, clothing, etc. • The social self is a plurality of selves for different social situations. • The spiritual self is a personal, subjective, and intimate self that sits in judgment of the other selves and can be a source of effort or will. • Similar to what Freud would later call the superego • Argued that conflicts among the selves could lead to tension • Self Esteem = (Success/Pretensions)

21. James’ Psychology Instincts Appeared only to develop and remain if an appropriate stimulus was present • Spalding (1873) The Wizard of the chicks! • Demonstrated the critical period – later implications for education Instincts get us through the first days of life (sucking, clasping, crying) and become less important through life

22. James’ Psychology Habits • Explains much of human behavior • Physical basis of habit • Sprained ankle is most likely point of future injury • Nervous system pathways form like ruts in a road • Humans are programmed to develop habits; They keep us moving. • Explains difficulty in breaking them • Intended changes should enlist the support of others

23. James’ Psychology Emotions • The experience of emotion is the experience of the body • James-Lange theory of emotion • Emotion is a result of the physical state of the body and cognitive processes • The first to suggest that emotion and cognitive processes are inseparable

24. James’ Psychology Memory • Hailed Ebbinghaus: different individuals had different gifts for visual, tactile, auditory, and verbal memory (100 years before Gardner!) • Demonstrated that memory was not necessarily facilitated by effort • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon • Debunked the prevailingDoctrine of Formal Discipline: Memorizing one thing will make you better at memorizing an unrelated subject

25. James’ Impact on Functionalism • The Principles of Psychology (1890) • Goal of psychology: study of people as they adapt • Function of consciousness: survival • Treats psychology as a biological science • Intellect operates under physiological influences of the body • Beliefs are determined by emotional factors • Reason and concept formation affected by human wants and needs

26. Women in Functional Psychology • Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) • Completed informal doctorate at Harvard with James • Denied her Ph.D. • Developed the paired-associate method to study retention • Conducted one of the first formal studies of dreaming. “We dream every night.”

27. Mary Whiton Calkins • 1st woman president of APA • 1906: ranked 12th among 50 most important psychologists • Freud cited her work on sleep and dreams • Awarded honorary degree from Columbia University • Men: Psychology’s Past • Women: Psychology’s Future

28. Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) • Ph.D. from Columbia (1916) under Thorndike • Measured newborns and empirically challenged the variability hypothesis, the belief that men are in all ways more variable than women • Demonstrated that the abilities of women are not affected by the menstrual cycle (periodic function)

29. Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) • Social and cultural attitudes, not biology, responsible for keeping women behind men in contributions • Significant contributions to clinical, educational and school psychology • Noted for work with “gifted children” (coined term)

30. The Chicago School • Chicago Philosophy Club (1896) • Saw themselves as pragmatic philosophers

31. The Chicago School • John Dewey (1859-1952) • Criticized reductionistic approaches • Experience must be understood in a naturalistic context. • The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology • Behavior and experience cannot be separated • Reflex is a circle, not an arc • Experience changes future behavior • Consciousness serves to modify reflexes • Apply to Democracy, Economics, Schools

32. John Dewey • Evolution • Consciousness should be studied in a natural environment, not dissected • Consciousness and behavior work together for the organism’s survival • Consciousness as a mechanism of survival

33. John Dewey • Education • Columbia University (1904-1952) • Focused on education • We learn by doing and then reflecting • Educational processes should be open and democratic. Learning by rote promotes totalitarianism • Democracy will flourish in society if it is applied in education

34. Functionalism in Sum • Did not last in any organized fashion • Seems vague • Thinkers appear only loosely connected • Researchers focused more on applied than basic research questions • Eclecticism makes it difficult for historians to develop a clear statement of functionalism. • Current psychology in America, however, may be regarded as functionalist in its problem-focused eclecticism and its applied nature.