Student Motivation What Makes Them Do That

1. Student Motivation � What Makes Them Do That?

2. Objectives Explain the difference between performance goals and mastery goals Describe how entity and incremental theories of intelligence affect student goal setting behavior Identify self-efficacy and expectancy theories and how they manifest themselves in student behavior Discuss how instructors can create classroom environments to foster mastery goal orientations Illustrate why praise does not serve to build self-esteem and motivation in students Practice proper methods for providing feedback to students There are additional goal orientations (performance-approach, performance-avoidance, mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance) that you may want to mention to your faculty, but we are not going to go into all of them at this point. These may be the subject of a later professional development session, but for this session, we want to focus on the basics of motivation, what students think, and how instructors can affect how and why students choose a particular goal orientation. There are additional goal orientations (performance-approach, performance-avoidance, mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance) that you may want to mention to your faculty, but we are not going to go into all of them at this point. These may be the subject of a later professional development session, but for this session, we want to focus on the basics of motivation, what students think, and how instructors can affect how and why students choose a particular goal orientation.

3. Opening Activity Obtain a Ranking Activity from the facilitator Rank the statements on the sheet Turn to the person next to you and share your list Provide each person with a Ranking Activity sheet. Allow approximately 3-5 minutes for the participants to rank the statements on the sheet listed. Ask the participants to turn to the person next to them and trade their lists. Ask a few people to share their lists. Ask for the one item (grading on skill MASTERY) that is missing which should be on every instructor�s list and which items from the ranking activity that CAN remain but only in conjunction with the item that is missing. Ask which items on the current list definitely HAVE to be discontinued. This activity sets the stage for what we are trying to do in Developmental Education. We now have exit tools in all of our courses and grading based on ANYTHING but mastery of content is unacceptable. Encouraging our students to feel good about themselves by encouraging mastery and effort is a good thing, but grading based upon anything BUT mastery is not. Provide each person with a Ranking Activity sheet. Allow approximately 3-5 minutes for the participants to rank the statements on the sheet listed. Ask the participants to turn to the person next to them and trade their lists. Ask a few people to share their lists. Ask for the one item (grading on skill MASTERY) that is missing which should be on every instructor�s list and which items from the ranking activity that CAN remain but only in conjunction with the item that is missing. Ask which items on the current list definitely HAVE to be discontinued. This activity sets the stage for what we are trying to do in Developmental Education. We now have exit tools in all of our courses and grading based on ANYTHING but mastery of content is unacceptable. Encouraging our students to feel good about themselves by encouraging mastery and effort is a good thing, but grading based upon anything BUT mastery is not.

4. Mastery and Helpless Responses Students can have one of two responses to a classroom situation: Mastery response Helpless response Mastery-oriented students tend not to focus on their lack of success or blame themselves, but seek new ways to accomplish their goal(s) Helpless-oriented students tend to think that the situation is outside of their locus of control, that they are not smart, and that they should give up. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Carol Dweck (2000) and others write about helpless and mastery oriented responses and how they lead into students� goal orientations in the classroom. One false assumption is that if students have a history of success, it will lead them to a mastery oriented response in future situations. This is not always true. Success does not always breed success or even success-oriented responses, even though we, as instructors, friends, and parents, would like to think that it does. Sometimes success leads to a helpless pattern, or even a self-destructive one, because students learn that they cannot depend on themselves, or they feel that they were only successful because of help from others (�I was lucky, the test was easy, anyone could have done it, etc.) Bright Girls One particularly disturbing case is that of �bright girls� as identified by Dweck (2000). She notes that these are the students who �with the most striking history of success are often the most, rather than the least vulnerable,� (p. 53). They do well in grade school, before the societal concerns of being female and smart become too much of an issue. As they age, when faced with challenges, they start to fall less and less into the mastery pattern and more into the helpless pattern, even though they had previously been able to master tasks. Dweck and Leggett (1985, 1988) found that bright girls were more likely than boys to hold entity theories of intelligence. When boys and girls with entity theories were tested, the GIRLS were the ones who selected a performance goal so as to avoid making mistakes. Almost none of the boys in the study selected a performance goal task. Barbara Licht also studied bright girls vs. bright boys and found that bright boys selected mastery tasks whereas bright girls selected performance goal tasks so they could do well (Dweck, 2000, p. 54). In studies done later, it was shown that the higher a girl�s IQ, the more helpless a response she was likely to show. Why does this matter? Why is all of this important? To demonstrate that neither IQ, nor previous success, nor previous response pattern can or should make a difference in a history of intelligence and success is no guarantee of a mastery response to a classroom challenge. While instructors can create a classroom full of challenging assignments, they cannot force students to respond one way or another. Some of the student response is inherent in the student, and some of it can be attributed to how instructors create their classroom environment. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Carol Dweck (2000) and others write about helpless and mastery oriented responses and how they lead into students� goal orientations in the classroom. One false assumption is that if students have a history of success, it will lead them to a mastery oriented response in future situations. This is not always true. Success does not always breed success or even success-oriented responses, even though we, as instructors, friends, and parents, would like to think that it does. Sometimes success leads to a helpless pattern, or even a self-destructive one, because students learn that they cannot depend on themselves, or they feel that they were only successful because of help from others (�I was lucky, the test was easy, anyone could have done it, etc.) Bright Girls One particularly disturbing case is that of �bright girls� as identified by Dweck (2000). She notes that these are the students who �with the most striking history of success are often the most, rather than the least vulnerable,� (p. 53). They do well in grade school, before the societal concerns of being female and smart become too much of an issue. As they age, when faced with challenges, they start to fall less and less into the mastery pattern and more into the helpless pattern, even though they had previously been able to master tasks. Dweck and Leggett (1985, 1988) found that bright girls were more likely than boys to hold entity theories of intelligence. When boys and girls with entity theories were tested, the GIRLS were the ones who selected a performance goal so as to avoid making mistakes. Almost none of the boys in the study selected a performance goal task. Barbara Licht also studied bright girls vs. bright boys and found that bright boys selected mastery tasks whereas bright girls selected performance goal tasks so they could do well (Dweck, 2000, p. 54). In studies done later, it was shown that the higher a girl�s IQ, the more helpless a response she was likely to show. Why does this matter? Why is all of this important? To demonstrate that neither IQ, nor previous success, nor previous response pattern can or should make a difference in a history of intelligence and success is no guarantee of a mastery response to a classroom challenge. While instructors can create a classroom full of challenging assignments, they cannot force students to respond one way or another. Some of the student response is inherent in the student, and some of it can be attributed to how instructors create their classroom environment.

5. Student Goal Setting These responses are a direct result of the goals that students set for themselves in the classroom. Student goals fall into one of two categories: Performance goals - appearances are most important Mastery goals - mastering the task at hand is most important The helpless oriented student often chooses a performance goal because he or she believes that success is how he or she will be judged in the future and keeping up the appearance of success or intelligence is what is important to that student. Selecting a performance goal is what becomes important because performance goal oriented students are focused on demonstrating their ability to others. These are often referred to as ego-oriented goals because the student is concerned with keeping his or her ego intact. Mastery oriented students will often choose mastery goals because even though these students may fail occasionally, these students do not look upon failure as bad. Many of these students see failure as a challenge. �Students with a mastery goal orientation are more likely to maintain a positive outlook in school� (Ames, as quoted in Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998, p. 159). These students are more likely to use more metacognitive and other deep processing strategies, engage in more planning activities, and are more self-regulating as a rule. These students focus on the task, not success or failure and are not put off by a challenging task. The helpless oriented student often chooses a performance goal because he or she believes that success is how he or she will be judged in the future and keeping up the appearance of success or intelligence is what is important to that student. Selecting a performance goal is what becomes important because performance goal oriented students are focused on demonstrating their ability to others. These are often referred to as ego-oriented goals because the student is concerned with keeping his or her ego intact. Mastery oriented students will often choose mastery goals because even though these students may fail occasionally, these students do not look upon failure as bad. Many of these students see failure as a challenge. �Students with a mastery goal orientation are more likely to maintain a positive outlook in school� (Ames, as quoted in Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998, p. 159). These students are more likely to use more metacognitive and other deep processing strategies, engage in more planning activities, and are more self-regulating as a rule. These students focus on the task, not success or failure and are not put off by a challenging task.

6. Performance Goals Sometimes called ability goals, ego-involved goals, or normative goals According to Dweck (2000), students want to: Look good to others Avoid portraying themselves in a negative light Exceed a �normative standard� (Self-Brown & Matthews II, 2003, p. 106) Performance goals limit students in the classroom because the students are not concerned with the learning or the task, but only with how they appear to others (or themselves) Will often lead to self-handicapping behaviors (procrastination, deliberate lack of effort on the part of the student) because of the determination not to fail at a task and not to look bad. Performance goals limit students in the classroom because the students are not concerned with the learning or the task, but only with how they appear to others (or themselves) Will often lead to self-handicapping behaviors (procrastination, deliberate lack of effort on the part of the student) because of the determination not to fail at a task and not to look bad.

7. Performance Goal Tricks When faced with a challenge, students who exhibit a performance goal orientation will often: Avoid situations in which they are likely to make mistakes Blame their lack of intelligence for a failure Accept only assignments that they are sure they can do Particularly if this is an assignment that looks difficult from the outside because this allows the student to maintain his/her image in front of others

8. Mastery Goals The student seeks to master or learn the task or concept at hand Failure represents challenge, not a diminishing of self-worth Students who show a mastery orientation are generally more persistent than students who show a performance goal orientation Expressing doubt in their ability to perform the task is acceptable at this point Expressing doubt in their intelligence is not These students do not need confidence in their existing ability to perform the task since their goal is �to increase their ability, not demonstrate that they already have the ability� (Dweck, 2000, p. 52). These students do not need confidence in their existing ability to perform the task since their goal is �to increase their ability, not demonstrate that they already have the ability� (Dweck, 2000, p. 52).

9. Mastery Goal Tricks Mastery goal students will do the following in the face of a challenge: Try different strategies to master the task Use encouraging self-talk (�I can do this, I�ve done things like this before,� etc.) Increase their efforts Talk themselves through the problem at hand

10. Reflection Take a few minutes and think about your classroom environment and some of your learning activities. Is your environment: More oriented towards performance goals or mastery goals? Does it foster competition among students? How can you turn your classroom into a more mastery environment? Give each person a Reflection Sheet Allow a few moments to answer the questions on the sheet Ask for volunteers to share their responses if they wish Remember that this activity may make some of the instructors a little uncomfortable�they are reflecting on their teaching environment. Do not force anyone to share who is not willing to share their responses. Only ask for sharing on the last question. The first response is very personal. Give each person a Reflection Sheet Allow a few moments to answer the questions on the sheet Ask for volunteers to share their responses if they wish Remember that this activity may make some of the instructors a little uncomfortable�they are reflecting on their teaching environment. Do not force anyone to share who is not willing to share their responses. Only ask for sharing on the last question. The first response is very personal.

11. Entity vs. Incremental Theories of Intelligence (Again) Entity theorists believe that intelligence is a �fixed, concrete, internal entity� Incremental theorists believe intelligence is a �more dynamic quality that can be increased� - Dweck, 2000, p. 20 These theories relate to how and why students develop their classroom goals THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES People with entity theories of intelligence �tend to be oriented to performance goals, that is toward documenting their intelligence whereas people with incremental theories tend to be more oriented more toward �learning� (or mastery) goals, that is toward developing their intelligence� (Dweck & Henderson, 1990. p. 2). If students believe that their intelligence is fixed (i.e. that they have only so much room available in their brains for learning and that once it has reached capacity, no additional learning can take place.) The most that these students can hope for is to fill it as completely as possible. Incremental theory students, on the other hand, believe that they have an unlimited capacity for learning and that they can learn by putting forth effort and trying multiple strategies. Handelsman, Briggs, Sullivan & Towler (2005) hypothesized that student engagement is related to the incremental theory of intelligence because these students think that if they are engaged in their learning, it can positively effect the outcome. They go on to theorize that this would in turn, affect the goal orientation that the student selects, leading students to a mastery goal orientation in the classroom. (p. 185) THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES People with entity theories of intelligence �tend to be oriented to performance goals, that is toward documenting their intelligence whereas people with incremental theories tend to be more oriented more toward �learning� (or mastery) goals, that is toward developing their intelligence� (Dweck & Henderson, 1990. p. 2). If students believe that their intelligence is fixed (i.e. that they have only so much room available in their brains for learning and that once it has reached capacity, no additional learning can take place.) The most that these students can hope for is to fill it as completely as possible. Incremental theory students, on the other hand, believe that they have an unlimited capacity for learning and that they can learn by putting forth effort and trying multiple strategies. Handelsman, Briggs, Sullivan & Towler (2005) hypothesized that student engagement is related to the incremental theory of intelligence because these students think that if they are engaged in their learning, it can positively effect the outcome. They go on to theorize that this would in turn, affect the goal orientation that the student selects, leading students to a mastery goal orientation in the classroom. (p. 185)

12. How Do Students Select Goals? Research has shown that the way instructors structure their classrooms can have some effect on the choices students make in selecting either performance or mastery goals (Self-Brown & Matthews, 2003) Particularly for students who are wavering or are not sure that the effort is worth the expenditure Student sense of self-efficacy can also affect goal selection Children do NOT require constant success to feel good about themselves�failure is one way in which we learn. Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two different things and teaching students how to cope with failure tends to build a mastery orientation, not a helpless one. Learning how to cope with failure also begins to build the entity theory of intelligence in and for children and for young adults. If we send the message to them that failure, even a little bit, is bad, they begin to see themselves as failures. Any type of failure then is not viewed as something from which they can learn, but as something to be avoided at all costs. This is what builds the entity theory of intelligence and where performance goals come from. If all that we, as adults, teachers, and parents, ever do is tell our children how bright, successful, and great they are, we will be creating a sense of entitlement that many teachers and administrators complain about. Students and children never learn the down side of life (Dweck, 2000). They NEED to experience failure at times to learn how to cope with it. Children do NOT require constant success to feel good about themselves�failure is one way in which we learn. Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two different things and teaching students how to cope with failure tends to build a mastery orientation, not a helpless one. Learning how to cope with failure also begins to build the entity theory of intelligence in and for children and for young adults. If we send the message to them that failure, even a little bit, is bad, they begin to see themselves as failures. Any type of failure then is not viewed as something from which they can learn, but as something to be avoided at all costs. This is what builds the entity theory of intelligence and where performance goals come from. If all that we, as adults, teachers, and parents, ever do is tell our children how bright, successful, and great they are, we will be creating a sense of entitlement that many teachers and administrators complain about. Students and children never learn the down side of life (Dweck, 2000). They NEED to experience failure at times to learn how to cope with it.

13. Self-Efficacy Theory Albert Bandura (1997) defines the following two items: Self-efficacy is a student�s judgment of his or her �personal capability,� in a particular area Self-esteem on the other hand, is related to judgments of �self-worth� These items are not necessarily related to one another. A student can feel good about himself or herself without feeling competent. The reverse can also be true. If a student feels self-efficacious about a particular goal, he/she may feel motivated to select a mastery goal, regardless of the classroom structure. (He/she is motivated to learn more about the subject and task, even though the classroom may be set up to have more performance goals in mind). Self-efficacy refers to a person�s belief that he or she is able to perform a task at a particular level of performance. These students are more likely to exhibit self-regulating behaviors, be more strategic, and demonstrate metacognitive behaviors. These students may willingly take on challenging tasks, display adaptive, mastery behaviors, seeing themselves as capable. They are more likely to control stress in the face of anxiety (Seifert, 2004). If a student is not feeling particularly self-efficacious, he/she is more likely to select a performance goal to avoid looking bad to self or peers. He/she wants to maintain the image that he/she has already created for the class. These students are less likely to adapt to challenges in the classroom and avoid tasks they perceive as difficult. Covington created self-worth theory, which is different from self-efficacy theory. Self-worth theory connects self-worth to performance (Siefert, 2004) and the worth of the individual to perform a task well. People who perform well are worthy; people who fail to perform are not. If a student feels self-efficacious about a particular goal, he/she may feel motivated to select a mastery goal, regardless of the classroom structure. (He/she is motivated to learn more about the subject and task, even though the classroom may be set up to have more performance goals in mind). Self-efficacy refers to a person�s belief that he or she is able to perform a task at a particular level of performance. These students are more likely to exhibit self-regulating behaviors, be more strategic, and demonstrate metacognitive behaviors. These students may willingly take on challenging tasks, display adaptive, mastery behaviors, seeing themselves as capable. They are more likely to control stress in the face of anxiety (Seifert, 2004). If a student is not feeling particularly self-efficacious, he/she is more likely to select a performance goal to avoid looking bad to self or peers. He/she wants to maintain the image that he/she has already created for the class. These students are less likely to adapt to challenges in the classroom and avoid tasks they perceive as difficult. Covington created self-worth theory, which is different from self-efficacy theory. Self-worth theory connects self-worth to performance (Siefert, 2004) and the worth of the individual to perform a task well. People who perform well are worthy; people who fail to perform are not.

14. Student Math (Expectancy Theory) Students decide whether to complete a homework assignment, project, or take a test in a class depending on their mental calculation of the following items: A. If they can be successful at the task and obtain the stated �rewards� B. If particular value placed on the �reward� is in line with the expected output to receive it Tollefson, 2000 THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Students expect a particular value from everything they do in the classroom. If they do not perceive the �reward� for the assignment, test, etc. to be high enough to perform the task, they may not decide to put forth the effort to perform the task. Their calculations are based on the perceived effort-performance relationship�essentially the expectation that one�s effort will lead to the �reward.� The student balances his or her past performance, the level of self-confidence, and the perceived difficulty of the performance goal. (Siefert, 2004) From the website: http://www.changeminds.org/explanations/theories/expectancy.htm Based on the work of Victor Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory is composed of: Valence: the value of the perceived outcome Instrumentality: the belief that if I (the student) perform certain actions, I will have the desired outcome Expectancy: The belief that I am capable of performing those actions (this is were self-efficacy comes into the picture a bit as previous performance factors in) Motivation=VxExI THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Students expect a particular value from everything they do in the classroom. If they do not perceive the �reward� for the assignment, test, etc. to be high enough to perform the task, they may not decide to put forth the effort to perform the task. Their calculations are based on the perceived effort-performance relationship�essentially the expectation that one�s effort will lead to the �reward.� The student balances his or her past performance, the level of self-confidence, and the perceived difficulty of the performance goal. (Siefert, 2004) From the website: http://www.changeminds.org/explanations/theories/expectancy.htm Based on the work of Victor Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory is composed of: Valence: the value of the perceived outcome Instrumentality: the belief that if I (the student) perform certain actions, I will have the desired outcome Expectancy: The belief that I am capable of performing those actions (this is were self-efficacy comes into the picture a bit as previous performance factors in) Motivation=VxExI

15. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation occurs when the reward is the satisfaction of the activity itself �Innate needs for competence and self-determination,� (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001, p. 3) Task involvement appears to make someone intrinsically motivated Extrinsic motivation is traditionally defined as motivation by external forces Punishments, rewards, bribes, grades Intrinsic Motivation Could someone who is involved in a task but NOT enjoying it be intrinsically motivated? This relates to Csikszentmihalyi�s theory of Flow and how students who are involved with what they are doing tend to get lost in the experience. They are interested in mastering the content for mastery's sake alone and become engaged with the task. The repeated use of rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsically rewarded students may not continue with the behavior once the reward stops; however, for intrinsically motivated students, the learning itself is the basis for motivation. These students appear to have a natural mastery motivation and do not need to be motivated by external forces. The question posed by Alfie Kohn is when does a reward become a bribe? Normally when it is known in advance and promoted as significant (i.e. if you finish X # of books, you will receive a pizza party). If an instructor wanted to throw a pizza party on a Friday as a celebration, and the students were unaware of this, and it was not used in any way to coerce the students into performing any type of task, this could not be construed as a reward or bribe for performing a particular task. It would simply be a celebration of the class�s success as a whole. There are different levels of rewards�some rewards for performing a task, some for simply engaging in the task, some for completion of a particular task. All rewards are some form of controlling behavior on the part of the person handing out the reward (Deci, Koestner, Ryan, 2001).Intrinsic Motivation Could someone who is involved in a task but NOT enjoying it be intrinsically motivated? This relates to Csikszentmihalyi�s theory of Flow and how students who are involved with what they are doing tend to get lost in the experience. They are interested in mastering the content for mastery's sake alone and become engaged with the task. The repeated use of rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsically rewarded students may not continue with the behavior once the reward stops; however, for intrinsically motivated students, the learning itself is the basis for motivation. These students appear to have a natural mastery motivation and do not need to be motivated by external forces. The question posed by Alfie Kohn is when does a reward become a bribe? Normally when it is known in advance and promoted as significant (i.e. if you finish X # of books, you will receive a pizza party). If an instructor wanted to throw a pizza party on a Friday as a celebration, and the students were unaware of this, and it was not used in any way to coerce the students into performing any type of task, this could not be construed as a reward or bribe for performing a particular task. It would simply be a celebration of the class�s success as a whole. There are different levels of rewards�some rewards for performing a task, some for simply engaging in the task, some for completion of a particular task. All rewards are some form of controlling behavior on the part of the person handing out the reward (Deci, Koestner, Ryan, 2001).

16. The Danger of Rewards Leads to a performance goal culture Everyone wants the elusive �A,� which leads to increased competition in the classroom Discourages risk-taking and critical thinking by students Reduces the intrinsic interest that students have in performing the task at hand THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES In a study performed by Self-Brown & Matthews II (2003), elementary school students were placed in one of three categories A token economy, in which they were rewarded with �school dollars� for achieving goals in a math classroom A contingency contract, in which students were allowed to set their own goals and received verbal feedback A control classroom, in which students devised their own goals, but no feedback was given The students in the contingency contract classroom had significantly more learning goals (mastery goals) than the other two classrooms, indicating that the evaluation system created by the teacher can have a major impact on the type of goals that students adopt Scarcity in the classroom When students think that instructors are only planning to give so many A�s, (i.e. the Bell-Shaped Curve), they automatically feel as if they are competing against one another for the A�s and a Performance Goal Oriented classroom is created, whether that is what the instructor intended or not. Statements made about grades, even if not intended to compare students, make a difference about how students compare themselves to one another. Creativity/Risk-taking Students do not want to run the risk of failure, so they tend to stick with the �tried and true� methods of completing assignments and projects rather than being different and taking risks with projects or assignments. Encouraging students to think creatively and explaining that not every assignment is rewarded by points and grades, but some are rewarded by the way in which students think differently afterward, will help students learn to think differently. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation In separate studies by Edward Deci and Mark Lepper, it has been proven that �extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation� (Kohn, 1993, p. 71). While this is counterintuitive to what most people actually believe, adding a reward of some kind to incite students to perform actually reduces an intrinsically motivated student�s performance. Rewards do not induce the student who isn�t all that interested in the first place to perform up to a particular standard since there may be other reasons, unrelated to the giving and receiving of a reward, for which the student is not performing. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES In a study performed by Self-Brown & Matthews II (2003), elementary school students were placed in one of three categories A token economy, in which they were rewarded with �school dollars� for achieving goals in a math classroom A contingency contract, in which students were allowed to set their own goals and received verbal feedback A control classroom, in which students devised their own goals, but no feedback was given The students in the contingency contract classroom had significantly more learning goals (mastery goals) than the other two classrooms, indicating that the evaluation system created by the teacher can have a major impact on the type of goals that students adopt Scarcity in the classroom When students think that instructors are only planning to give so many A�s, (i.e. the Bell-Shaped Curve), they automatically feel as if they are competing against one another for the A�s and a Performance Goal Oriented classroom is created, whether that is what the instructor intended or not. Statements made about grades, even if not intended to compare students, make a difference about how students compare themselves to one another. Creativity/Risk-taking Students do not want to run the risk of failure, so they tend to stick with the �tried and true� methods of completing assignments and projects rather than being different and taking risks with projects or assignments. Encouraging students to think creatively and explaining that not every assignment is rewarded by points and grades, but some are rewarded by the way in which students think differently afterward, will help students learn to think differently. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation In separate studies by Edward Deci and Mark Lepper, it has been proven that �extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation� (Kohn, 1993, p. 71). While this is counterintuitive to what most people actually believe, adding a reward of some kind to incite students to perform actually reduces an intrinsically motivated student�s performance. Rewards do not induce the student who isn�t all that interested in the first place to perform up to a particular standard since there may be other reasons, unrelated to the giving and receiving of a reward, for which the student is not performing.

17. How Instructors Contribute to the Problem Getting angry or frustrated if they feel students are not contributing the effort to master the subject or task at hand Demonstrated most often in the feedback given to students Creating a classroom environment in which performance goals are stressed over mastery goals Particularly if competition is stressed over learning the subject to the best of one�s ability In many cases, instructors are not taught the art of giving feedback to students. Instructors often: Just mark a problem as incorrect and do not provide any evaluative feedback on how the student can improve his/her performance and master the task at hand Provide performance-oriented feedback (i.e. give a sample of another student�s paper which meets the performance criteria. For students who already demonstrate performance goal orientation, this further pushes them into competition mode, even if the student name or other identifying marks are deleted from the paper) In creating a classroom environment, instructors sometimes: Write the class curve on the board after a test or quiz Write last quarter�s class grade distribution on the board (to �help people see where they �could� or �should� be) Stress grades and points constantly (i.e. If you do this, you can earn �extra credit�) Give incorrect explanations for the importance of peer review (that it isn�t about providing evaluative comments on content and ideas, but to �correct and critique� other students or �to help them spot their errors�) In many cases, instructors are not taught the art of giving feedback to students. Instructors often: Just mark a problem as incorrect and do not provide any evaluative feedback on how the student can improve his/her performance and master the task at hand Provide performance-oriented feedback (i.e. give a sample of another student�s paper which meets the performance criteria. For students who already demonstrate performance goal orientation, this further pushes them into competition mode, even if the student name or other identifying marks are deleted from the paper) In creating a classroom environment, instructors sometimes: Write the class curve on the board after a test or quiz Write last quarter�s class grade distribution on the board (to �help people see where they �could� or �should� be) Stress grades and points constantly (i.e. If you do this, you can earn �extra credit�) Give incorrect explanations for the importance of peer review (that it isn�t about providing evaluative comments on content and ideas, but to �correct and critique� other students or �to help them spot their errors�)

18. Don�ts of Motivation Theory Do not tell students to �try harder� Prevent students from comparing themselves with one another whenever possible Mastery is a solo effort, but learning activities can be done in teams Avoid pitting students against one another in competition for scores or rewards THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES While many instructors may think this is encouraging, it can actually be discouraging because: Students may already be trying as hard as they can. Encouraging them to try harder when it is entirely possible that they are putting forth maximum effort now may cause them to feel like a failure and may trigger a performance goal orientation where they avoid trying to do anything that makes them look bad to others. Feedback should emphasize how the student can improve and what he/she needs to do to move to the next level of mastery. Instructors should avoid posting scores on the board, reading them aloud, or even giving ranges (even without names so as not to violate FERPA), so that students can compare their performances against those of other students in the class. Again, this is not a motivating feature�it is setting up students to have performance goals rather than mastery goals. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES While many instructors may think this is encouraging, it can actually be discouraging because: Students may already be trying as hard as they can. Encouraging them to try harder when it is entirely possible that they are putting forth maximum effort now may cause them to feel like a failure and may trigger a performance goal orientation where they avoid trying to do anything that makes them look bad to others. Feedback should emphasize how the student can improve and what he/she needs to do to move to the next level of mastery. Instructors should avoid posting scores on the board, reading them aloud, or even giving ranges (even without names so as not to violate FERPA), so that students can compare their performances against those of other students in the class. Again, this is not a motivating feature�it is setting up students to have performance goals rather than mastery goals.

19. Do�s of Motivation Theory Create a classroom structure in which the tasks are involving and engaging Craft a feedback structure that is positive in nature One that emphasizes mastery and how the student can improve, not performance relative to others Select evaluation systems that prevent comparison to other students Peer review is still a valid tool as the student does not assign the grade THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Here is a document on Peer Review (discusses it in medical journals, but goes through the process and brings up some good points) http://www.smartbearsoftware.com/docs/book/code-review-works.pdf. There is a difference between a feedback structure (the manner in which you give feedback) and an evaluation system (the way students are evaluated as a whole in your class�the grading system). Evaluate students objectively, using a rubric, a checklist, preferably something that can be provided to students when the assignment is given so that they have something to work toward as they are completing the assignment. Feedback should be given on an iterative basis, as drafts are completed and students are working towards completing the project or assignment. Feedback is meant to provide guidance so that students can improve BEFORE they are evaluated. It does NOT help if instructors are carrying around papers for three weeks waiting to give �substantive feedback�, and the class is scheduled to end two weeks after that. Students need time to not only read the feedback, but incorporate it into their work. Some timely feedback is better than hefty, but late feedback. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Here is a document on Peer Review (discusses it in medical journals, but goes through the process and brings up some good points) http://www.smartbearsoftware.com/docs/book/code-review-works.pdf. There is a difference between a feedback structure (the manner in which you give feedback) and an evaluation system (the way students are evaluated as a whole in your class�the grading system). Evaluate students objectively, using a rubric, a checklist, preferably something that can be provided to students when the assignment is given so that they have something to work toward as they are completing the assignment. Feedback should be given on an iterative basis, as drafts are completed and students are working towards completing the project or assignment. Feedback is meant to provide guidance so that students can improve BEFORE they are evaluated. It does NOT help if instructors are carrying around papers for three weeks waiting to give �substantive feedback�, and the class is scheduled to end two weeks after that. Students need time to not only read the feedback, but incorporate it into their work. Some timely feedback is better than hefty, but late feedback.

20. Student Beliefs about Motivation One way to change student beliefs about learning and motivation is to discuss common misconceptions such as: Learning without effort makes one smart (Paulsen & Feldman, 1999; Tollesfson, 2000) Explain how ALL learning takes effort Comparing oneself to one�s peers is an effective learning strategy Students do not have any idea of the effort that the other students put into learning for a particular class THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Students often have mistaken beliefs about how learning takes place and how easy it should be. For example, many students have the mistaken belief that some students are smarter than others (entity theory again), and that they do not have to work as hard to learn. Other students need things explained to them that instructors often take for granted (transfer of knowledge). Students do not know how difficult (mentally and emotionally) making that transfer can sometimes be (Schommer, 1994b, as quoted in Paulsen and Feldner, 1999). Using complex strategies like problem-based learning, which does not have one easy solution, and students are required to use critical thinking skills to solve these issues, can help demonstrate this concept. We, as instructors, also need to be honest with our students about where their skills are, and how they can improve upon them, to not only allow them to improve, but to build both their sense of self-esteem and self-efficacy. It isn�t bad to have to work harder; it is just a sign that students did not understand on the first try and need to try again. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Students often have mistaken beliefs about how learning takes place and how easy it should be. For example, many students have the mistaken belief that some students are smarter than others (entity theory again), and that they do not have to work as hard to learn. Other students need things explained to them that instructors often take for granted (transfer of knowledge). Students do not know how difficult (mentally and emotionally) making that transfer can sometimes be (Schommer, 1994b, as quoted in Paulsen and Feldner, 1999). Using complex strategies like problem-based learning, which does not have one easy solution, and students are required to use critical thinking skills to solve these issues, can help demonstrate this concept. We, as instructors, also need to be honest with our students about where their skills are, and how they can improve upon them, to not only allow them to improve, but to build both their sense of self-esteem and self-efficacy. It isn�t bad to have to work harder; it is just a sign that students did not understand on the first try and need to try again.

21. Praise Praising intelligence often leads to a performance goal orientation Students who are praised for intelligence fear no longer being able to show it These students measure themselves by their success and when they fail, they consider themselves failures Praising effort often leads to learning goal orientation Students want to take on the challenge THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Dweck (2000) noted that �the kind of feedback children get from adults can directly cause different patterns [helpless and mastery]�no matter what inclinations the children come with. These patterns can be strongly molded in the child�s environment,� (p. 107). If children can be conditioned to feedback patterns, then college students can most likely be conditioned that way as well, so we, as instructors, need to be VERY careful about the types of feedback AND praise we are giving our students. Groups of children who were who given person-oriented praise (�You are a good girl/boy,� � I�m proud of you,� �You are good at this� ) were the ones who were MOST vulnerable to the effects of failure. They showed the most helpless pattern of all the groups. In essence, the ones who were the most deeply praised were the ones who were the most vulnerable to the effects of failure. The groups who received the effort and strategy praise were the most mastery-oriented. (Dweck, 2000, p. 109-113) Dweck goes on to talk about �contingent self-worth� (p. 114) in which people feel good about themselves only when they succeed. This can often lead to people who exhibit self-defeating behaviors because if they do not even try, they cannot fail, so their self-worth does not diminish. It is a vicious cycle and one we have to help our students recognize and break. Dweck notes that �praise, although it may make children feel good at the time it is given, carries with it a host of dangers� (p. 115). The same may be true for our students when we provide feedback that is not evaluative in nature. The phrase �good job� does not help our students improve their performance. Even if it IS a good job, there is almost always an area in which the student can improve his/her performance and helping the student locate that area can lead to a mastery orientation. THERE ARE 2 PAGES OF NOTES HERE..BE SURE TO PRINT BOTH PAGES OF NOTES Dweck (2000) noted that �the kind of feedback children get from adults can directly cause different patterns [helpless and mastery]�no matter what inclinations the children come with. These patterns can be strongly molded in the child�s environment,� (p. 107). If children can be conditioned to feedback patterns, then college students can most likely be conditioned that way as well, so we, as instructors, need to be VERY careful about the types of feedback AND praise we are giving our students. Groups of children who were who given person-oriented praise (�You are a good girl/boy,� � I�m proud of you,� �You are good at this� ) were the ones who were MOST vulnerable to the effects of failure. They showed the most helpless pattern of all the groups. In essence, the ones who were the most deeply praised were the ones who were the most vulnerable to the effects of failure. The groups who received the effort and strategy praise were the most mastery-oriented. (Dweck, 2000, p. 109-113) Dweck goes on to talk about �contingent self-worth� (p. 114) in which people feel good about themselves only when they succeed. This can often lead to people who exhibit self-defeating behaviors because if they do not even try, they cannot fail, so their self-worth does not diminish. It is a vicious cycle and one we have to help our students recognize and break. Dweck notes that �praise, although it may make children feel good at the time it is given, carries with it a host of dangers� (p. 115). The same may be true for our students when we provide feedback that is not evaluative in nature. The phrase �good job� does not help our students improve their performance. Even if it IS a good job, there is almost always an area in which the student can improve his/her performance and helping the student locate that area can lead to a mastery orientation.

22. Criticism Criticism oriented toward a person will make that person more likely to exhibit performance oriented responses and measure himself or herself solely by success (or failure) Criticism oriented toward strategies or effort will generally lead to more mastery oriented responses in the face of challenges Dweck and others gave children both criticism and praise that was feedback oriented and person-oriented. Results showed that �criticism that reflected on the child as a whole created the entire helpless pattern of self-blame, negative affect, and a lack of constructive solutions, as well as the general beliefs that accompany the helpless pattern. Critical feedback that focused the child on alternative strategies produced the most mastery-oriented pattern� (Dweck, 2000, 111). Dweck and others gave children both criticism and praise that was feedback oriented and person-oriented. Results showed that �criticism that reflected on the child as a whole created the entire helpless pattern of self-blame, negative affect, and a lack of constructive solutions, as well as the general beliefs that accompany the helpless pattern. Critical feedback that focused the child on alternative strategies produced the most mastery-oriented pattern� (Dweck, 2000, 111).

23. Feedback Hints Give direct, objective information about how the student can improve his/her performance Provide immediate feedback Explain the purpose of your feedback and why you are giving it to students as often as you do. Use clear language � the student should not have to ask questions about what your feedback means Help the student prioritize his/her time Be direct and descriptive about the issues Avoid labeling the work as �good� or �bad� Point to specific instances in the student work Other Do�s and Don�ts of Feedback: The idea is to critique, not criticize student work. The role of the instructor is not to pick out every error in student work, but to find general trends and help the student learn to locate errors on his or her own. Help the learners locate their own errors by practicing self-assessment on a regular basis in class. Be attentive to manner and tone when giving verbal feedback. Avoid �Yes, but� feedback when attempting to give positive feedback. Do not give superficial feedback when giving positive feedback. Remember the dangers of praise for the sake of building self-esteem. Students do not need to be told that they are good just to raise their self-esteem. When they master the task, that is when they will feel good about themselves. Use the guidelines of the assignment � give the rubric or criterion sheet as a reference whenever possible Be honest and thoughtful Other Do�s and Don�ts of Feedback: The idea is to critique, not criticize student work. The role of the instructor is not to pick out every error in student work, but to find general trends and help the student learn to locate errors on his or her own. Help the learners locate their own errors by practicing self-assessment on a regular basis in class. Be attentive to manner and tone when giving verbal feedback. Avoid �Yes, but� feedback when attempting to give positive feedback. Do not give superficial feedback when giving positive feedback. Remember the dangers of praise for the sake of building self-esteem. Students do not need to be told that they are good just to raise their self-esteem. When they master the task, that is when they will feel good about themselves. Use the guidelines of the assignment � give the rubric or criterion sheet as a reference whenever possible Be honest and thoughtful

24. Activity � 10 minutes Use either the math test or the English paper provided, depending on your discipline. Do not grade the paper, but review it, providing evaluative feedback to the student. Separate the instructors by discipline Provide either a math test or an English paper to the instructors Instruct the participants to review the document, providing evaluative feedback for the student, using the information from the previous slide Separate the instructors by discipline Provide either a math test or an English paper to the instructors Instruct the participants to review the document, providing evaluative feedback for the student, using the information from the previous slide

25. Peer Review � 10 minutes Trade papers with someone else in your discipline. Review the feedback provided to the student, keeping in mind what was discussed about praise, criticism, providing evaluative feedback. Do not critique, but provide evaluative feedback to the instructor for improvement purposes. Instruct the participants to trade the papers which they have just reviewed with someone else in their discipline. Review the feedback that the participant just provided to the student, seeking to help that instructor improve the quality of his/her feedback. Remind the participants that the goal is not to critique, but to provide evaluative feedback for improvement purposes.Instruct the participants to trade the papers which they have just reviewed with someone else in their discipline. Review the feedback that the participant just provided to the student, seeking to help that instructor improve the quality of his/her feedback. Remind the participants that the goal is not to critique, but to provide evaluative feedback for improvement purposes.

26. Final Thoughts Some think that the goal levels we have discussed here are too simplistic Students CAN pursue multiple goals at once Social goals Academic goals Goals can be conflicting and change depending on student need See Jere Brophy�s article � Goal Theorists should Move On from Performance Goals (2005) in Educational Psychologist that discusses how performance goals can be considered too simplistic at this point of the field of Educational Psychology. More recent research has identified seven types of goals including: Working goals - working to get things done and moving on to the next thing Evaluation goals - wanting to get good evaluations or avoiding negative ones Learning goals - similar to mastery ones-wanting to learn, finding out about things Complying goals - wanting to meet student goal requirements, following the rules, etc. Interpersonal relationship goals - seeking to develop relationships with peers or teachers Enjoyment goals - engaging in activities for enjoyment or fun Discipline goals - wanting to engage in ethical behavior and avoiding discipline (Brophy, 2005, p. 171) See Jere Brophy�s article � Goal Theorists should Move On from Performance Goals (2005) in Educational Psychologist that discusses how performance goals can be considered too simplistic at this point of the field of Educational Psychology. More recent research has identified seven types of goals including: Working goals - working to get things done and moving on to the next thing Evaluation goals - wanting to get good evaluations or avoiding negative ones Learning goals - similar to mastery ones-wanting to learn, finding out about things Complying goals - wanting to meet student goal requirements, following the rules, etc. Interpersonal relationship goals - seeking to develop relationships with peers or teachers Enjoyment goals - engaging in activities for enjoyment or fun Discipline goals - wanting to engage in ethical behavior and avoiding discipline (Brophy, 2005, p. 171)

27. Questions