Aristotle’s Politics

Aristotle’s Politics The Just Arrangement of the City

The “Authoritative Element” • Who should wield authority in government? • “It is either the multitude, the wealthy, the respectable, the one who is best of all, or the tyrant; but all of these appear to involve difficulties. How could they not?” (Book 3, Chapter 10) • What are the difficulties with each?

The Multitude • Why not democracy? Isn’t that the rule of the people? • Rule only of the majority: “If the poor by the fact of being the majority distribute among themselves the things of the wealthy, is this not unjust?” • Democracy is often only the rule of the majority, often of the poor, over and against the rest within a society • If democracy is justified merely because it is rule of the majority, it is no different than rule of a tyrant. • The majority rules because it has the force of numbers behind it in the same way that the tyrant rules because he has the force of arms behind him.

The Wealthy • “But is it just, therefore, for the minority and the wealthy to rule? If they act in the same way and rob and plunder the possessions of the multitude, is this just? If so, the other is as well.” • Thus, the problem of rule by the wealthy is the same as that of rule by the multitude

The “Respectable” • “In this case, all the others are necessarily deprived of prerogatives, since they are not honored by political offices. For we say that offices are honors, and when the same persons always rule the others are necessarily deprived of [these honors] or prerogatives.” • Is this unjust? • What’s the problem with the rule of the respectable?

“The Most Excellent of All” • “But is it better for the one who is most excellent of all to rule? But this is still more oligarchic, as more are deprived of prerogatives.” • Because of people’s political jealousy, the most “just” regime may not be the best regime. Concessions have to be made to political jealousy, even though irrational. • So, as we’ll see, Aristotle concentrates much of this discussion on what would be the most just regime; however, he concedes that the most just regime may not be feasible politically. • This is especially the case because “it is perhaps no longer easy for any regime to arise other than a democracy.” Book 3, Chapter 15

Political Virtue • Before considering Aristotle’s account of the most just arrangements in the city, we must consider again his discussion of the proper aims of the city • The city exists “not only for the sake of living but rather primarily for the sake of living well, for otherwise there could be a city of slaves or of animals—as things are, there is not, since they do not share in happiness or in living in accordance with intentional choice.” • Thus, the city exists so as to allow its citizens to choose virtue for themselves and the participants in the city

Classical Realism • One might attribute this to an “idealistic” view of government • Aristotle, however, implies that his argument is realistic: “Whoever takes thought for good management, however, gives careful attention to political virtue and vice. It is thus evident that virtue must be a care for every city, or at least every one to which the term applies truly and not merely in a manner of speaking.” • How could this argument be seen as more realistic?

The Insufficiency of the Oligarchs and the Democrats • Given his definition of the goal of politics, Aristotle claims both the oligarchs (i.e. those who claim to merit rule unequally because of their wealth) and the democrats (i.e. those who claim to merit rule equally because of their freedom) speak only of “a kind of justice” while they consider “themselves to speaking of justice simply.” • “For the ones [the oligarchs], if they are unequal in a certain thing, such as goods, suppose they are unequal generally, while the others suppose that if they are equal in a certain thing, such as freedom, they are equal generally.” (Book 3, Chapter 9) • In what way do the oligarchs think “they are unequal generally” and the democrats think “they are equal generally?”

Virtue is only legitimate claim • “The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together. Hence those who contribute most to a partnership of this sort have a greater part in the city than those who are equal or greater in freedom and family but unequal in political virtue, or those who outdo them in wealth but are outdone in virtue.” (Book 3, Chapter 9) • Given the ends of the city and the claims of the oligarchs and the democrats themselves, the only legitimate claim is virtue.

The Just Claim of the Most Superior Man • “In the case of the best regime, however, there is considerable question as to what ought to be done if there happens to be someone who is outstanding not on the basis of preeminence in the other goods such as strength, wealth, or abundance of friends, but on the basis of virtue. For surely no one would assert that such a person should be expelled and banished. But neither would they assert that there should be rule over such a person: this is almost as if they would claim to merit ruling over Zeus by splitting the offices. What remains—and it seems the natural course—is for everyone to obey such a person gladly, so that persons of this sort will be permanent kings in their cities.” (Book 3, Chapter 13) • Aristotle now claims that, if the only legitimate claim to rule is virtue, then the most virtuous should be obeyed “gladly” by everyone in the city. • This is because of what is said later: “For in the case of persons similar by nature, justice and merit must necessarily be the same according to nature; and so if it is harmful for their bodies if unequal persons have equal sustenance and clothing, it is so also [for their souls if they are equal] in what pertains to honors, and similarly therefore if equal persons have what is unequal.” (Book 3, Chapter 16) • In other words, it’s not just to treat unequal persons equally and so, if there’s a superior man in the city, justice demands that he get an unequal share of the honor of ruling.

The Wise Rule of a Superior Man • As we just saw, Aristotle thinks that justice points to the rule of the most virtuous, but he also thinks that the most virtuous will be the best manager of the city. • “The beginning point of the inquiry is this: whether it is more advantageous to be ruled by the best man or by the best laws. Those who consider it advantageous to be under a kingship hold that laws only speak of the universal and do not command with a view to circumstances. So to rule in accordance with written [rules] is foolish in any art…It is evident, therefore, for the same reason that the best regime is not one based on written [rules] and laws.” (Book 3, Chapter 15). What does this mean?

The Problems with the Rule of the Most Superior • Theoretically, Aristotle thinks it makes sense both from the standpoint of justice and from the standpoint of “political management” for the most superior man to rule the city and be obeyed “happily” by the rest of society • There are, however, two essential problems with this type of rule

1) The Problem of “Human Nature” • The first problem is pointed to by Aristotle in his discussion about what to do about “what pertains to the offspring.” • Aristotle writes: “Perhaps he will not turn it over to his children in spite of having authority to do so? But it is not easy to believe this either; it would be difficult, and [require] greater virtue than accords with human nature.” (Book 3, Chapter 15) • This point can be generalized: • The problem with the rule of the most superior man is that of “human nature” • Because he is human and thus potentially partial to himself and his friends, he may not, in fact, rule with the true interests of the city in mind • This is made even more the case because it will be difficult for other human beings to know who is, in fact, the most superior man. They might choose someone who claims to be most superior but isn’t, someone who, in the end, only wants political power

2) The Problem of Democratic Resistance • “There is a question also concerning his power—whether one who is going to rule as king should have about himself some force by which he will be able to compel those who do not want to obey” (Book 3, Chapter 15) • The difficulty with the rule of the most superior man is also that the people, the “democrats” attached to their own virtue, will not be willing “to obey such a person gladly.” • Thus, the most superior man will have to use a kind of force that will end up perverting his regime and making it, in actuality, less than the most just regime. • So, because “it is perhaps no longer easy for any regime to arise other than a democracy,” concessions have to be made to the democrats not because of the actual justice of their arguments but because they will resist any rule other than democracy • Why do the democrats insist on participation?

Democratic Pride • Because politics adjudicates on fundamental questions of right and wrong or justice and injustice, men do not want to believe that they are not capable of deciding these matters for themselves. • The democrats insist on political participation because the questions of politics touch on fundamental questions about what constitutes a good life. Although Aristotle might be right that certain superior men are better able to guide everyone toward the good life, the aim of politics, most people do not want to accept this argument that points toward their own insufficiency. They believe they are capable of guiding themselves toward a good life. Are they right?

The Regime Determines the People • Aristotle claims that one can only know the character of any given people if one looks at their political arrangement • “But where the same persons inhabit the same location, must it be asserted that the city is the same as long as the stock of inhabitants remains the same…? For if the city is a type of partnership of citizens in a regime, if the regime becomes and remains different in king, it might be held that the city as well is necessarily not the same.” (Book 3, Chapter 3)

Different Peoples Need Different Political Arrangements • “For by nature there is a certain [people] apt for mastery, another apt for kingship, and another that is political.” (Book 3, Chapter 17). What does this mean? • There is no clear universally just regime. It will depend on the character of the people who inhabit any given city

Aristotle’s Politics