The World of the Late Roman Empire and The Late Roman Army

1. The World of the Late Roman Empire and The Late Roman Army The Historical Context The most important Changes to the Army The End of the Roman Army

2. The Roman Empire Under Trajan http://ca.search.yahoo.com/search/images/view?back=http%3A%2F%2Fca.search.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%2Fimages%3Fp%3DThe%2BRoman%2BEmpire%2Bunder%2BTrajan%26ei%3DUTF-8%26fr%3Drogersfp-imp%26x%3Dwrt&w=600&h=391&imgurl=www.galenfrysinger.com%2Fimages%2Frome1.gif&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galenfrysinger.com%2Froman_cities.htm&size=21.4kB&name=rome1.gif&p=The+Roman+Empire+under+Trajan&type=gif&no=9&tt=19&oid=ce96139aa4ea74a4&ei=UTF-8

3. The Context • Empire reached greatest territorial extent under Trajan (AD 98-117) • Successive emperors Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161) – only made adjustments to frontier, any territorial additions only to facilitate frontier defences • Brief period of peace • Marcus Aurelius (161-180) first signs of strains on military resources in his reign • Responded with important changes: creation of field armies as distinct from provincial armies already stationed in region: brought together army units from different parts of Empire = vexillation; • Promotion of military commanders based on suitability not on class or progressive stages of traditional cursus honorum • By end of 2nd century the rudiments of the two important changes in army organization apparent.

4. Trajan annexes Dacia “After spending some time in Rome, Trajan made a campaign against the Dacians; for he took into account their past deeds and was grieved at the amount of money they were receiving annually, and he also observed that their power and their arrogance were increasing…Trajan constructed over the Danube a stone bridge for which I cannot sufficiently admire him…Trajan, having crossed the Danube by means of this bridge, conducted the war with safe prudence rather than with haste; and eventually, after a hard struggle, vanquished the Dacians…Decabulus, when his capital and all his territory had been occupied and he was himself in danger of being captured, committed suicide; and his head was brought to Rome. In this way Dacia became subject to the Romans and Trajan founded cities there.” (Cassius Dio, 68.6.1-13.1-4.)

5. The Political Context at end of 2nd century AD • Rome still capital of undivided Empire and seat of Emperor • Senate somewhat curtailed, but still exercised auctoritas • Political and military advancement went hand in hand, following stages of cursus honorum (civilian and military posts) • Legionary legates, most provincial governors were senators • Equites had limited opportunities to rise to high posts; but avenues to rise to power: governors of Egypt were equestrian prefects (Imperial provinces)

6. The Frontiers • Variety of different frontier types: some were open roads; some followed lines of rivers; some had physical barriers: ditches, Hadrian’s Wall in England (overkill) – consisted of ditch to north, wide stone wall with turrets, mile-castles and forts, larger ditch to south (vallum) • Germany –the limen (palisade fronted by a ditch) built by Hadrian, later replaced by bank of earth • In Raetia – a stone wall; Africa – stretches of stone walls; most frontier provinces had legionary fortresses in interior; Rhine and Danube – rivers formed boundaries – legions stationed at strategic points close to river banks • Auxiliary troops stationed in forts on frontier lines; most frontiers had small fortlets, with watchtowers in between

7. The Army • Size of Legions about 5500 – 6000 Roman citizens • Auxiliary units: 3 types – alae (cavalry); cohortes peditatae (infantry); mixed units of both foot and horsement (cohortes equitatae); 500 strong or 1000; • Citizenship granted after 25 years of service • Recruitment of legions and auxiliary units mostly from local population living around forts

8. Army Reforms of Septimius Severus (Emperor AD 193-211) • probably as an attempt to make service more attractive • Privileges: 1. gave legal sanction to soldiers’ marriage; 2. increase in pay • Cash always most effective way to coerce army; military revolts put down or deflected by large donatives. • Now large part of Empire’s resources went to army • Both Cassius Dio and Herodian accused Severus of bleeding the Empire dry. • Easier Promotions: possible to rise from ranks to officer status, from there to Praetorian Guard, even to equestrian posts of civil service and even further. • Appointed equestrians to command three new legions he raised; installed equestrian prefect as governor of Mesopotamia • Advancement of non-senators not Severus’ innovation, influence of Senate gradually weaker; made appointment of equestrians only more formal

9. Cassius Dio 79.13:the example of Agrippa and Triccianus • “he sent Agrippa to Dacia and Decius Triccianus to Pannonia. The former had been a slave acting as tireman for some woman and had stood trial before Severus for that very reason, though he had been counsel for the imperial treasury; banished later to an island for the betrayal of some cause, he had subsequently been recalled, along with the others, by Tarautas, had had charge of his judicial decisions and correspondence, and finally had been relegated to the position of senator with the rank of ex-praetor, because he had admitted immature lads into the army. Triccianus had served as a private soldier in the contingent from Pannonia, had once been doorkeeper to the governor of that province, and was at this time commanding the Alban legion. “

10. Cassius Dio on Septimius Severus75.2. • “There were many things Severus did that were not to our liking, 3 and he was blamed for making the city turbulent through the presence of so many troops and for burdening the State by his excessive expenditures of money, and most of all, for placing his hope of safety in the strength of his army rather than in the good will of his associates in the government”

11. Cassius Dio 77.15 • “ At all events, before Severus died, he is reported to have spoken thus to his sons (I give his exact words without embellishment): "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and ignore all other men."

12. Reforms of Septimius Severus continued • Most important reform: increase in size of army • Marcus Aurelius had recruited two new legions; Severus raised extra auxiliary units • Raised 3 new legions; 2 left in garrison in new province of Mesopotamia; 1 garrisoned in Alba ca. 20 miles outside Rome • Increased numbers of Praetorian Guard and Urban Cohorts • Estimated he had 30,000 men in Italy at his disposal

13. The Field Army vexillumin the 3rd century • Origins of 4th century field army found in Septimius Severus’ new legions • Severus did not intend legion as mobile reserve but as support for his throne when away from Italy • troops mobile but slow – took 60 days to march from Rome to Cologne – better to call them reserve for the II Parthica – used this army in this capacity by successors: was with Caracalla when he was murdered, then at Apamaea with Emperor Macrinus, then in Germany under Severus Alexander, then at siege of Emona with Maximus, at Milan in 258 with Emperor Gallienus • Emperors commanded armies composed of vexillations from different legions, alae and cohortes of provincial armies; expeditionary armies – • 3rd and 4th centuries presence of Emperor necessary at place of fighting – emperor at different bases: Cologne, Trier, Milan, Verona, and others became headquarters of Imperial armies at different times • Mobility extremely important – Cavalry more important to defend against rebels and usurpers • Met requirements of time: no conquest but to counter sudden attacks on Roman high command by barbarians or usurpers, often by both at same time.

14. The Third Century Crises Empire confronted by several crises at same time. Usurpers: Power struggle between commanders of provincial legions. Barbarian Attacks across the Rhine and Danube by increasingly organized and effective German confederacies (i.e. Goths, Franks, Alemanni etc.) and across the Euphrates from invigorated Persian Empire (Sassanid Persia); Repeated simultaneous invasions on two fronts. Several devastating plagues. Massive economic failure. Power struggles required loyalty of troops; Raises in pay; devastation of land and disruption of trade caused by internal and external invaders reduced available resources; debasement of coinage and hyperinflation – increases in pay for the troops. One brief period of stability – 253-268 (Age of Gallienus) Generally – shift in leadership towards the military aspect

15. Emperor Gallienus 253 - 268 • AD 255 created cavalry army when defending Rhine frontier and in need for rapid movement; assembled from legionaries from Rhine, Pannonia and Noricum, brought II Parthica and Praetorians from Rome perhaps into one standing force. • From 259 this cavalry was based at Milan under commander Aureolus who was in charge to prevent Gallic usurper Postumus from invading Italy • Danger to have a single person in command; Aureolus could not resist temptation – rebelled against Gallienus, did not gain throne but was murdered, cleared path, however, for Claudius II Gothicus (268-70)

16. Reforms of Diocletian • Placed detachments along frontiers; strengthened defenses, rebuilt forts and garrisoned them • Division of Empire into short-lived 4 parts (Tetrarchy) under its own Augustus or Caesar chosen by Diocletian; in attempt to prevent civil war • Creation of comitatus (field army)? • In Republic and early Empire – comites were members of entourage of magistrates, provincial governors • More official under Marcus Aurelius and the Severans, body of officers accompanying emperor on campaign; not purely military but also administrative • Probably made up of different troops • Creation of protectores?

17. Constantine AD 307-337 • When aming at throne was in similar position as Gallienus – facing multiple and hostile opposition forces • Assembled army of troops from Britain, added Gauls and Germans from Rhine; but could not strip north-western frontier of all its troops - would open himself up to attack. • Defeated Maxentius at Milvian bridge • Zosimus 2.15 claims he was outnumbered by 100,000 - - his defeat of Maxentius termed miraculous

18. Reforms of Constantine • After victory at Milvian Bridge, was left with remnants of Maxentius’ armies, and his own assembled field army. Could not disband it – until position secured • Made distinctions between mobile units of comitatenses and Imperial bodyguard – the scholae palatinae under direct command of Emperor; preventing power praetorian prefects had in past • Comitatenses divided into cavalry – commanded by new posts magister equitum • and infantry, commanded by magister peditum • single mobile army centered around Emperor unable to keep peace in all parts of Empire • Creation of regional field armies in different areas, especially in Germany, Illyricum and east, each with own commander: magister • Separation of ripenses (field army) and limitanei (frontier army)

19. The Roman Army in the 4th Century • By 4th century the Imperial Roman Army was the Army of the Late Empire • Successful until the two great disasters: Adrianople AD 378 – destroyed the eastern army • Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western army