CHAPTER FOUR

1. CHAPTER FOUR Policy Adoption

2. 4 | 2 Introduction Policy-adoption entails action on a preferred alternative that can win approval, not necessarily choices between various full-blown policy alternatives Adoption gives policies the �weight of public authority� Legitimacy

3. 4 | 3 Theories of Decision-Making Rational-Comprehensive Theory Not to be confused with rational choice Specifies the procedures involved in making well-considered decisions that maximize the attainment of goals, whether personal or organizational Subject to several criticisms Decision-makers are not faced with clearly defined problems Unrealistic in the intellectual demands placed on decision makers Lack of time and resources necessary to evaluate all of the alternatives

4. 4 | 4 Theories (cont.) Incremental Theory Limited changes or additions to existing policies Easier to reach agreement between parties when only minor changes are made to existing programs Sequences of incremental changes can result in fundamental changes in public policy Criticisms Too conservative and focused on existing order Does not allow for crisis situations Because of focus on past, it discourages searching for new or innovative alternatives that are readily available

5. 4 | 5 Theories (cont.) Mixed Scanning Takes the best of rational-comprehensive and incremental theory; minimizes weaknesses of each Provides �high-order, fundamental policy-making processes which set basic directions and�incremental processes which prepare for fundamental decisions and work them out after they have been reached� Allows decision makers to use either rational-comprehensive or incrementalism depending on the circumstances of a given situation

6. 4 | 6 Decision Criteria Decision-making can be either individual or collective Values Organizational values � Those who work for an agency for a long period of time will become �true believers� Professional values � Professionally trained people tend to carry the value preferences of their particular profession

7. 4 | 7 Decision Criteria (cont.) Values cont. Personal values � the urge to protect or promote one�s own physical or financial well-being, reputation, or historical position Policy values (public ideas) � perceptions of the public interest; what is the �right thing� to do Ideological values � sets of coherent or logically related values and beliefs that present simplified pictures of the world and serve as guides to action

8. 4 | 8 Decision Criteria (cont.) Political-Party Affiliation Party loyalty Best predictor to how members of Congress will vote on legislative issues Influences the decisions of federal judges Constituency Interests Delegate vs. Trustee vs. Politico Agencies have constituencies comprised of interest groups

9. 4 | 9 Decision Criteria (cont.) Public Opinion Public perspectives and viewpoints on policy issues that officials consider in making decisions Shapes general boundaries & direction of public policy Can be permissive Deference Deferring to the judgment of others who are more experienced Other legislators, party leaders, committee chairs, policy experts Decision Rules Stare decisis Per se Committee rules

10. 4 | 10 Public Interest Normative term that can be tricky to define Private interests and public interest are not always antithetical Can be found in widely shared interests Can also be found by looking at the need for organization and procedures to represent and balance interests, to resolve issues, to effect compromise on policy formation, and to carry public policy into effect

11. 4 | 11 Styles of Decision-Making Bargaining Most common form of decision-making Process where two or more parties in positions of power adjust their goals in order to formulate an acceptable (but not necessarily ideal) course of action for all involved Explicit vs. Implicit bargaining

12. 4 | 12 Styles (cont.) Persuasion The marshaling of facts, data, and information; the skillful construction of arguments; and the use of reason and logic to convince another of the correctness and wisdom of one�s position Command The ability of those in superior positions to make decisions that are binding upon those who come within their jurisdiction In practice, all three styles run together in decisional situations

13. 4 | 13 Majority Building in Congress Decentralization of power Political parties in Congress are weak Geographic representation and decentralized elections Committee system Because of decentralization and the complexities of procedures, majorities must constantly be cobbled together to enact important legislation

14. 4 | 14 Presidential Decision-Making Presidents are policy adopters in their own right Executive Orders Factors shaping presidential decision-making Permissibility (legality) Available resources Available time Previous commitments Available information