Language of Composition Chapter 1

Language of CompositionChapter 1 An Introduction to Rhetoric

What is Rhetoric? • According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), rhetoric is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” • More clearly, it is “the study of effective, persuasive language”

What makes language effective? • Effective language is situational • It has a context (the occasion or time and place in which it was written or spoken) • Watch for bias (prejudice or predisposition toward one side or the other of the topic) • It has a purpose (the goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve)

What makes language effective? • Effective language has a crystal clear main idea known as a thesis, or claim, or assertion.

Speaker The rhetorical triangle (The Aristotelian triangle) Audience Subject

What is the rhetorical triangle? • Rhetorical triangle—the representation of the rhetorical situation in terms of the relationship between • The Speaker—the author, speaker, or person whose perspective (real or imagined) is being advanced in a speech, or piece of writing • Persona—the speaker, voice, or character assumed by the author • The Audience—the listener or reader to whom a speech or piece of writing is addressed • The Subject—the topic being addressed

Three rhetorical appeals • Ethos (an appeal to the credibility or trustworthiness of the speaker) • Logos (an appeal to logic or reason) • Pathos (an appeal to emotion)

Ethos • The appeal to ethos often emphasizes shared values between the speaker and the audience • The appeal to ethos sometimes is established automatically by the speaker’s reputation • The appeal to ethos can also be established through tone (the speaker’s attitude toward the subject)

Logos • The appeal to logos means having a clear main idea (thesis) supported by specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony • Assumption—a belief or statement taken for granted without proof • Assertion—an emphatic statement; a declaration • Argument—an assertion supported by evidence

Logos • The appeal to logos often acknowledges a counterargument (an objection or an opposing view) from the other side • You can concede the point (agree that the point might be true) • You can refute the point (deny that the point is valid either in whole or in part) • Concession and refutation strengthen your argument by showing that you are considering the issue carefully

Pathos • An appeal to pathos engages the emotions of the audience • An appeal to pathos is dependent upon the selection of language for its connotations as well as its denotations • Denotation (the literal meaning of the words) • Connotation (the emotional baggage attached to the words used)

Pathos • Emotional appeals usually include vivid, concrete description and figurative language • Emotional appeals can be strengthened by visual elements

Pathos • Warning: An argument that appeals only to the emotions is by definition a weak argument. It is usually propagandistic in purpose and more polemical than persuasive • Propagandistic—attempting to sway opinion rather than to present information • Polemical—argumentative, rather than persuasive

Visual rhetoric • The same principles that are at work in speeches and writings are also true of images—cartoons, advertisements, photographs, artwork.

Arrangement (the organizational pattern) • The classical model • The introduction (exordium)—draws readers into the text by piquing their interest, challenging them, or getting their attention • The narration (narratio)—provides the factual information and background material on the subject at hand; establishes why the subject is important; usually appeals to logos, but can also appeal to pathos • The confirmation (confirmatio)—the major part of the texst; includes the development or the proof needed to make the case; the strongest appeal to logos • The refutation (refutatio)—addresses the counterargument; serves as a bridge between the proof and the conclusion; usually appeals to logos • The conclusion (peroratio)—brings the argument to a close; usually appeals to pathos; and reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier; extends the argument by answering “so what?”; important because the last words and ideas are what the readers will remember the longest

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Narration—telling a story or recounting a series of events • Can be based on personal experience or on knowledge gained from reading or observation • Written in chronological order • Includes concrete detail, a point of view, and even dialogue • Often used as an introduction into another pattern

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Description—emphasizes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels • Often used to establish atmosphere • Usually used in combination with another pattern

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Process analysis—explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was done • Clarity is key: • explain clearly and logically • transitions that mark the sequence of major steps, stages, or phases of the process

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Exemplification—provides a series of examples (facts, specific cases, or instances) which turn a general idea into a concrete one • Examples are a kind of proof called induction • Specific examples  general conclusion

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Comparison and contrast—juxtaposingtwo things to highlight their similarities and differences • Can be organized in two ways: • Subject-by -subject—writer discusses all elements of one subject then turns to the other (A1,2,3,4,5, then B1,2,3,4,5) • Point-by-point—writer discusses specific points one at a time, directly comparing the two subjects (1AB, 2AB, 3AB, 4AB, then 5AB)

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Classification and Division—sorting material or ideas into major categories • What goes together and why? • How do the categories relate to each other and to the larger whole?

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Definition—defining a term so that the writer and the reader are speaking the same language • First step in argument

Patterns of development (organizing according to purpose) • Cause and effect—analyzingthe causes that lead to an event OR analyzing the effects that result from a cause • Can be a sophisticated argument, but one must carefully trace the chain of cause and effect, being alert to contributing causes • Must be careful to distinguish causal from correlational

Language of Composition Chapter 1