Nuts and Bolts of Scientific Writing

1. Nuts and Bolts of Scientific Writing

2. Why do I need to write? • “A naturalist’s life would be a happy one if he had only to observe and never to write.” – Charles Darwin • Goal of scientific research is publication • Publications are correlated with grant funding success • Publications are required for promotion, recognition, and salary increases • No one benefits if results are not shared

3. Science is a “Social Disease” • Never alone • Communication vs. archiving • Publication vs. notebook • Advertising • Your work is important only if others see it and build on it

4. Scientific Writing • Organization of paper is as important as literary skill • Bad writing dooms “good science” • Simplicity and clarity • Majority of scientists are NOT native English speakers • The thinking is what really counts

5. Scientific Writing - History • First scientific journals began in 1655 in France & England • Until mid-1800s all papers of a descriptive style • In the mid-1800s Pasteur introduced experimental papers that stressed reproducibility and which are now the rule

6. Important Questions • What message do I want to convey? • What question did I ask? • What was my answer? • NOT, What experiments did I do?

7. Organizing Your Thoughts • The hardest part of the process • Outlines? • Everybody works differently • Not an excuse to avoid writing!

8. Organization & Planning Help to: • Identify the main points • Identify missing or incomplete information • Gather information efficiently • Maintain continuity • Establish a reasonable time-line

9. Finding the Pieces • Never trust your memory • Construct figures, graphs, and tables as soon as the data are available • Consider establishing a personal literature retrieval database

10. Scientific Paper Definition Allow peers to: • Assess observations • Repeat experiments • Evaluate intellectual processes

11. The Reader • Deconstructionism • It does not matter what you write (say), only what the reader sees (hears) • Shifting the focus from you to them • Know your reader • What should your writing say to the reader?

12. What should a paper say? Read me! Believe me! Care about me! Remember me!

13. IMRAD - What & Why • Introduction, Materials & Methods, Results and Discussion • A standard recipe for formal papers • Variations not encouraged • Saves space & $$$ for journals • Facilitates review process

14. The Logic of IMRAD • Introduction - What question (problem) was studied? • Materials & Methods - How was the problem studied? • Results - What were the findings? • Discussion - What do the findings mean?

15. IMRAD Variations • Descriptive field & clinical cases • Unusual sections, e.g. mathematical derivations or computer analysis • Journal alters order (usually M&M last) • Combine M&M and Results (Experimental) • Combine Results and Discussion

16. First Drafts • Work with, not against, your tendencies • Start with the easiest section • Build momentum and keep it going • If time is short, emphasize the first draft

17. The Introduction • Provides background on research topic • Contains a literature review (keep it focused) • Identify approach and justify it if necessary • Overall goal is to identify a significant problem and explaining how addressing it advances the field

18. Introduction: Last Paragraph • An important paragraph • Focus on three points: • Objective(s) • Hypothesis(es) • Significance • Mirrors the conclusion paragraph at the end of the Discussion • Provides your measure of the criteria against which your paper should be evaluated

19. Materials • Use sub-headers to guide the reader • Do not include Results here • Provide complete materials list • Check journal policy on release of materials to other researchers • Deposit critical materials and sequences in internationally accessible locations

20. Methods • Give detailed methodology in general order used in Results, but group similar techniques • If protocol or materials already published, then summarize general approach • Evidence for reproducibility • Identify statistical tests and data analysis protocols

21. The Results • No materials; no methods • Usually should not justify experiments being conducted • Very little or (preferably) no discussion • Usually written in the past tense • Sub-headers often helpful • Data may be presented in text, tables or figures • Present information in only one form • Often the shortest text section of the paper

22. Some Guidelines for the Results • Focus on data related to stated objectives and hypotheses • Be selective in terms of data presented • Do not repeat table/figure titles; explain only points from tables or figures that are not obvious • Make sure text/figures/tables are consistent!

23. But I Have So Much Data! • The journal does not want your lab notebook! • “The compulsion to include everything, leaving nothing out, does not prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that one lacks discrimination.” S. Aaronson (1977) • “The Authors have clearly demonstrated that they can collect elegant data that they can neither interpret nor analyze.” Anonymous AEM reviewer (2003)

24. The Discussion • Often the hardest section to write • Does not simply recapitulate the Results • Varies considerably in length • Shows significance of work, often in the concluding paragraph • Last paragraph may parallel the last paragraph of the Introduction – objectives, hypotheses & significance – and may look forward to future papers/experiments

25. Discussion Components • Do not introduce new data • Present the principles, relationships & generalizations shown by the Results • Identify exceptions and unsettled points • Place the results in the context of previous work • Identify theoretical implications and practical applications as appropriate • State the conclusions to be drawn • Identify the evidence to support each conclusion

26. Acknowledgments • Courtesy, not science • “We thank …” • Identify external financial assistance, e.g. grants • Thanks for technical assistance, for providing materials or cultures, for access to special equipment • Make sure names are correctly spelled!

27. References Cited • List all significant published references • All references in the text must be in the References section • Check every reference against the original publication – content & citation information • Follow the journal’s format very carefully

28. Supplemental Material • Permitted by some journals • Supplementary material only • Format varies by journal • Often web-site posting (usually managed by the journal)

29. When to do What • Start writing while work is still in progress • Identify the objectives • Work from an outline or other organizational plan • A common order: • Materials and Methods • Results (with Tables and Figures) • Introduction and Discussion • Abstract • Make frequent back-ups

30. Now That You’ve Started… • Write in blocks, but never stop at the end of one. Adding a few sentences or thoughts to the next section makes it easier to start again the next time. • If stuck in one place, switch to another section, or even another paper • Looking for a word – insert a placeholder • Keep at it – regularly and often

31. The 2nd Draft (The 1stRevision) • Allow time to pass before beginning • First draft = rough draft – disjointed, wordy, grammatically incorrect, jargon • First drafts are often conversation-style – written as we would speak • Often organized in a historical manner • Goal now is structural alteration

32. Overall Editing Three target areas (not equally important): 1. Editing for content (1st revision) • Is it accurate? • Does it achieve its purpose? 2. Editing for organization (1st revision) • How well is the message presented and communicated? • Organization may be as important as content 3. Editing for format (2nd & subsequent revisions) • Affects efficiency and authority of the message • Find things that distract

33. Prose Style • Minimize verbiage • Avoid run-ons • Subject-verb-object (SVO) matters • Child eats bear • Bear eats child

34. Voice • Active voice - Subject of the sentence performs the action; more precise and less wordy • Your friends wrote this sentence. • Passive voice – Subject of the sentence undergoes the action; usually the scientist’s favorite • This sentence was written by your friends. • Active voice preferred form for scientific writing

35. The Third Revision • How come I’m not finished? • Scientific writing should keep reader’s interest • Make the manuscript readable and interesting • The writing should not interfere with the message • “Good prose is like a window pane.” – George Orwell

36. Revisions Are the Rule • Every writer must do them • Want to have the reader think the same as you • Revisions will be accompanied by new thoughts and insights • Must also know when to stop • More eyes the better