Micro-variation at the syntax-semantics interface

1. Micro-variation at the syntax-semantics interface Delia Bentley Institute for Linguistics and Language Studies The University of Manchester delia.bentley@manchester.ac.uk

2. Aims • How to prepare and conduct fieldwork on the syntax-semantics interface. • How to analyse the findings of fieldwork on the syntax-semantics interface. • Focus on micro-parametric variation. • Some issues arising from the interaction of the dialects and the official language.

3. Stages • Preparation. • Research on the field. • Analysis. Stage 1: the most delicate and difficult one.

4. Stage 1: preparation (a) Get acquainted with the structure(s). (b) Get acquainted with the languages(s). (c) Formulate research questions and hypotheses. (d) Choose your field techniques. (d) Conduct a pilot study. (e) Refine your hypotheses and field techniques.

5. Getting acquainted with the structure(s) and the language(s) • The specialist literature. • Corpus analysis? • The field.

6. Why? • Define the structure and its semantic spectrum across languages. • Formulate and refine research questions and starting hypotheses. • Your hypotheses should be maximally strong (detailed and falsifiable) and maximally flexible (can be refined).

7. The conditional construction (1a) If the temperature rises to 100º C, the water will boil. (1b) If the temperature rose to 100º C, the water would boil. (1c) If the temperature had risen to 100º C, the water would have boiled.

8. The conditional construction (cont.) Three degrees of hypotheticality (Comrie 1986) or (im)probability of realization of the hypothesis: realis, possible, unreal. Research question How does the morphosyntax of language x express realis, possible and unreal hypotheses?

9. The conditional construction (cont.) (2a) Se piove, le strade si riempiono di fango. ‘If it rains, the roads will fill with mud.’ (2b) Se piovesse, le strade si riempirebbero di fango. ‘If it rained, the roads would fill with mud.’ (2c) Se fosse piovuto, le strade si sarebbero riempite di fango. Vado subito a controllare dalla finestra. Lit. If it had rained, the roads would have filled with mud. I will just go and check from the window. No pattern exclusively used for unreal hypotheses.

10. Research questions • How does language x express realis, possible and unreal hypotheses?  • How does the morpho-syntax of language x partition the spectrum from necessarily realised hypotheses to impossible hypotheses? 

11. Existential constructions: evidence from Sardinian

12. The structure There is (an) x, C’è (un) x, Il y a (un) x… exist´ (x). Typological literature (e.g., Clark 1978)

13. Focus on the Definiteness Effect (DE) “[…] the purported unnaturalness, anomaly or ungrammaticality (depending on one’s analysis) of definite NPs or certain quantificational NPs in existential sentences” (McNally 1998). (3a) There are girls at home. (3b) ?There was Fred outside. (3c) *There was every doctor at the convention.

14. Focus on the DE (cont.) Research question What kinds of NPs are unnatural, anomalous or ungrammatical in Sardinian existential sentences?

15. Focus on the DE (cont.) (4a) B’at pitzinnas. ‘There are girls.’ (4b) Bi sun sas pitzinnas. ‘There are the girls.’ (5a) Bi sun duos de cuddos libros. ‘There are two of those books.’ (5b) Cales alunnos bi sun? ‘Which students are there?’

16. Focus on the DE (cont.) Across languages the definite restriction is manifested differently: definites and some classes of indefinite NPs may be anomalous or marked differently from indefinites. Revised research questions: • What underlies morpho-syntactic definiteness? • Are all definite NPs admitted and marked with ‘be’ in dialect x? • Which indefinite NPs are marked with ‘be’ in dialect x? • What do the ‘be’ marked indefinite NPs share with definites?

17. Refining one’s hypotheses ‘Be’ selection indicates a relation between objects in discourse (Enç 1991): identity with an established discourse referent or inclusion in a set which has previously been established in discourse.

18. Pros: specific broad Cons / difficulties: construal of examples (Lavandera 1975) language of examples interference The pilot study: questionnaires, guided interviews.

19. Questionnaires (cont.) Part 1 (L1) (and part 2, translation from L2). The role of the context of the examples. • Alternatives in context. • Grammaticality judgements in context. • Pure context (informants provide examples). • Add context / Let the informant add context. • Narratives with fill in the blanks.

20. Alternatives in context [Immagine you and your family have been waiting for a series of parcels to be delivered at your house. One day two of these parcels turn up and you want to tell your daughter. Would you say (a) or (b)?] (6a) Bi sun duos de cuddos paccos. ‘There are two of those parcels.’ (6b) B’at duos de cuddos paccos. ‘There are two of those parcels.’

21. Alternatives in context (cont.) [You want to reassure your husband that after twenty years of marriage he is still the only man in your life. How would you say this?] (7a) B’est solu un’omine in sa vida mea. ‘There is only one man in my life.’ (7b) B’at solu un’omine in sa vida mea. ‘There is only one man in my life.’

22. Grammaticality judgements [You are a teacher in the village primary school and today you were off sick. After the school day is over you phone the supply teacher to ask which students have been to your class. Can you imagine saying the following? If not, why not?] (8) Cales alunnos bi fin? ‘Which students were there?’

23. Pure context [You are a teacher in the village primary school and today you were off sick. After the school day is over you phone the supply teacher to ask which students were in the class today. What would you say? How would you ask this question?]

24. Add context [Would you say No isco chie siat ‘I do not know who that is’ after any of these?] (9a) B’at un’omine in sa ianna. (No isco chie siat). ‘There is someone at the door. (I do not know who it is)’ (9b) B’est un’omine in sa ianna. (No isco chie siat.) ‘There is a man at the door. (I do not know who he is).’ (9c) B’est un’omine in sa vida mea. (No isco chie siat.) ‘There is one man in my life. (I do not know who he is).’

25. Add context The informant may provide important information. [Recall grammaticality judgements] (8) Cales alunnos bi fin? ‘Which students were there?’ [I say Cales alunnos bi fin? because I know the group of students that we are talking about…]

26. Refining your hypotheses ‘Be’ selection indicates a relation between objects in discourse (Enç 1991): (i) identity with an established discourse referent; (ii) inclusion in a set which has previously been established in discourse; (iii) assignment, i.e., the establishment – whether implicit or explicit – of a relation between objects in discourse.

27. Refining your hypotheses (i) Identity (4b) Bi sun sas pitzinnas. ‘There are the girls.’ (ii) Inclusion (6a) Bi sun duos de cuddos paccos. ‘There are two of those parcels.’ (iii) Assignment (9c) B’est un’omine in sa vida mea. ‘There is one man in my life.’

28. Micro-parametric variation • The morpho-syntax of closely cognate languages may partition the relevant semantic spectrum in minimally different ways, i.e., in accordance with different micro-parameters (conditions, constraints, etc.). • Hypotheses formulated in micro-parametric terms. • You will have to figure out what the micro-parametric variation means in terms of the syntax-semantics interface.

29. Micro-parametric variation (cont.)

30. Micro-parametric variation (cont.) The hypothesis that - across the Sardinian dialects - ‘be’ selection may vary in accordance with this prominence scale is both strong (detailed and falsifiable) and flexible (can be refined).

31. Stage 2: research in the field • Do not miss any steps. • Language of the interview: the helper. • Choice of participants. • Questions should be culturally bound.

32. Bilingualism with fluid diglossia • Polarization in choice of speakers. • A local helper who conducts the interview with or for you. • How do your structures work in the H language? • Distinguish between patterns and unsystematic exceptions but be as inclusive as possible.

33. Unsystematic exceptions? • What is an exception? Performance error. Mixed provenance of informants. Pressure from H language. The use of questionnaires / the help of a member of the local community help reduce the risk of interference.

34. The interview With the support of your helper draw the attention of the informant on the language but not necessarily - or not only - on the specific structures which you are testing. (9a) B’at un’omine in sa ianna. (No isco chie siat). ‘There is someone at the door. (I do not know who it is)’ (9b) B’est un’omine in sa ianna. (No isco chie siat.) ‘There is a man at the door. (I do not know who he is).’ (9c) B’est un’omine in sa vida mea. (No isco chie siat.) ‘There is one man in my life. (I do not know who he is).’

35. The interview (cont.) [You come into this room and see some flowers on this table. What do you say ?] (10a) B’at fiores in sa mesa. ‘There are flowers on the table.’ (10b) Bi sun fiores in sa mesa. ‘There are flowers on the table.’ [Actually, do you call this mesa or banca?]

36. The interview (cont.) [You come into this room and see some flowers on this table. What do you say ?] (11a) B’at fiores in sa banca. ‘There are flowers on the table.’ (11b) Bi sun fiores in sa banca. ‘There are flowers on the table.’ [Is it fiores or frores? In Bono they say fiores…]

37. The interview (cont.) • Let the informants comment and provide information. • Be prepared for the unexpected. • Verify.

38. The unexpected The role of grammatical person (12a) Bi sun issos. (Bonese) ‘There are them.’ (12b) Bi sun eo. ‘There is me.’ (13a) B’at issos. (Orgolese) ‘There are them.’ (13b) Bi semus nois. ‘There is me.’

39. The unexpected The evidential parameter. (14a) A cantu parit ddoi depit ai ni incui. (Sardara) ‘It seems that there is snow there.’ (14b) Castia ca in frigurìferu ddoi depit ai ottu ous. ‘Have a look: in the fridge there must be eight eggs.’ (15a) Nci funt medas problemas. (Villacidro) ‘There are (we have) many problems.’ (15b)Ddoi at medas problemas. ‘There are (they have) many problems.’

40. Stage 3: the analysis • Correlations between patterns and locations. • Correlations between patterns. • Scope for the unexpected. • Analysis at the interface.

41. Patterns and locations.

42. Pattern a and pattern b ‘Be’ selection systematically correlates with finite verb agreement. (16a) B’at (HAVE.3SG) fiores (PL) in sa banca. ‘There are flowers on the table.’ (16b) Bi sun (BE.3PL) sos fiores (PL) in sa banca. ‘There are flowers on the table.’

43. Analysis at the interface Finite verb agreement is a diagnostic of subjecthood in Romance. The prominence scale is a subjecthood prominence scale. Reversing the order of the micro-parameters we obtain a markedness scale.

44. Analysis at the interface

45. To recap • Preparation. • Strong and flexible hypotheses: falsifiable, sophisticated, can be refined. • The role of the context. • Micro-parametric variation. • Correlations. • Analysis at the interface. • The unexpected.