Important Assignment!!!!

1. Important Assignment!!!!

2. Activity Recall vs. Recognition

3. Module 12 Remembering & Forgetting

4. Recall vs. Recognition • Recall • Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues • Recognition • Identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues

5. Organization of Memories • Network Theory • We store related ideas in separate categories, called nodes • As we make associations between information, we create links among thousands of nodes • Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of files

6. Network Hierarchy • Nodes • Memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic • Network hierarchy • Arrangement of nodes in a certain order • At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete information • These nodes are linked to more specific information, which is connected to more general information

7. Forgetting • Refers to the inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize information that was stored or is still stored in long-term memory.

8. Forgetting Curve • Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time • Ebbinghaus • One of the 1st psychologists to study memory & forgetting • He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

9. 4 Reasons for Forgetting • Repression • Mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious • Poor Retrieval Cues • Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we create by forming vivid mental images or creating associations between new information & information we already know • Amnesia • Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the brain, after drug use, or after severe psychological stress • Interference • Recall of a memory is blocked by other related memories

10. Interference • Theory that we may forget information not because it is no longer in storage or memory but rather because old or newer related information produces confusion and thus blocks retrieval from memory

11. 2 Types of Interference • Proactive • Old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the remembering of new information (learned later) • Retroactive • New information (learned later) blocks or disrupts the remembering of old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the retrieval of related old info learned EARLIER (psychology)

12. Retrieval Cues • Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental images of information or associating new information with information that you already know • State Dependent Learning • It is easier to recall information when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as when you originally encoded the information

13. Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory • Explains forgetting as due to the failure to have or use adequate retrieval cues • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Refers to having a strong feeling that a particular word can be recalled, but despite making a great effort, we are temporarily unable to recall this particular information. Later, in a different situation, we may recall the information. • The inability to recall info that one knows has been stored in long-term memory • Universal, increases with age, and occurs about once a week

14. Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory • Encoding Specificity: Recall will be best when cues that were associated with the encoding of a memory are also present during attempts at retrieving it • Context Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when the environmental context present during the encoding of a memory is also present during attempts at retrieving it • State Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when one’s emotional or physiological state is the same during the recall during attempts at retrieving it • Mood Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when one’s mood is the same during the recall of a memory as it was during the encoding of that memory • Mood Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current mood • Helps explain the self-perpetuating nature of depression

15. Where should you take your psychology tests?

16. Discussion: If you wanted to change your study habits, how would you use information about why we forget?

17. Biological Bases of Memory • Cortex- short-term memories & long-term memories (stores) • Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain • Amygdala- emotional memories (adds emotional associations) • Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in the tip of the temporal lobe • Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our memories • Hippocampus- transferring memories from STM to LTM (transfers) • Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe • Transfers declarative information (words, facts & events) from STM into LTM

18. Location of Memories in the Brain

19. STM: Neural Assemblies • Groups of interconnected neurons whose activation allows information or stimuli to be recognized and held briefly and temporarily in short-term memory • One mechanism for holding information in short-term memory

20. LTM: Long-Term Potential (LTP) • Researchers believe that learning changes the structure and function of the neuron itself • LTP refers to the increased sensitivity of a neuron to stimulation after it has been repeatedly stimulated (by changing the neuron’s structure)

21. Mnemonic Devices • Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations or images • Techniques for organizing information to be memorized to make it easier to remember • SQR4 Method • Elaborative Rehearsal (vs. maintenance rehearsal & rote memorization) • Overlearning • Distributed Practice (vs. Massed Practice) • Method of Loci • Acronyms • Pegword Method • Link Method • Narrative Method

22. SQR4 Method • Student using the following processes to read and study: • Surveys: Glance through the headings throughout a section to get an idea about which you will be reading • Questions: As you survey, develop questions that you should be able to answer when finished • Read: Carefully read the material • Recite: Be sure you can answer all the questions and explain what you have read • Review: Quiz yourself on the section and reread the necessary portions that you didn’t know well • wRite: Write what you have learned in your own words.

23. Elaborative Rehearsal • Processing information at a relatively deep level • Far superior to maintenance rehearsal & rote memorization (process at a relatively shallow level)

24. Overlearning • Study material beyond the point of initial mastery • Helps performance partially due to increased confidence

25. Distributed Practice • Spreading out memorization of information or learning over several sessions • Far superior to massed practice (Cramming the memorization of information or learning into one session)

26. Method of Loci • Create visual associations between already memorized places & new items to be memorized • Mnemonic device that involves associating the items you need to remember with the landmarks of a familiar place • You recall the items as you take a mental walk through the familiar place

27. Acronym • Forming a term from the first letters of a series of words that need to be remembered

28. Pegword Method • Create associations between number-word rhymes and items to be memorized • One is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree; four is a door; five is a hive • First, make-up a simple rhyme like 1= bun, 2= shoe, 3= bee, etc. • Associate the items you need to remember with the peg words (like bun) in your rhyme • The stranger the association, the easier it will be for you to remember the item

29. Link Method • Connect images of the items you need to remember in sequence

30. Narrative Method • Connect unrelated items that you must remember together in a story

31. Discussion: Can you describe a mnemonic method to remember the four reasons for forgetting?

32. Activities Creating Memories 27 8 False Memories

33. Can False Memories Be Implanted? • Researchers interviewed parents about events that occurred in their children’s lives during the past 12 months • Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these events including some fictitious events • Children were asked to “think hard” & identify the events that actually happened Bar graph data from “Repeatedly Thinking About a Non-Event: Source Misattributions Among Pre-Schoolers,” by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman, E. Smith & E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 388-407.

34. How Accurate is an Eyewitness? • Own-Race Bias • Researchers found that an eyewitness of one race is less accurate when identifying an accused person of another race • Confidence • 6 reviews of studies concluded that there is a weak relationship between correct identification & level of witness confidence

35. Can Questions Change the Answers? • Did the car pass the barn? • After watching a film segment, subjects were asked, “How fast was the red sports car going when it passed the barn?” • Although there was no barn in the film, 17% of subjects reported seeing a barn • Was there a stop sign? • Subjects were shown slides of a traffic accident involving a stop sign & asked questions about what they saw • Some subjects were asked misleading questions about a yield sign instead of a stop sign • Subjects who had been given misleading questions were more likely to report seeing a yield sign than subjects who were not misled

36. Source Misattribution • Memory error that results when a person has difficulty deciding which of 2 sources a memory came from • Factors contributing to source misattribution • false suggestions • misleading questions • misinformation

37. Cognitive Interview • Used by investigators to interview eyewitnesses • Technique for questioning people by having them imagine & reconstruct the details of an event & report everything they remember

38. Discussion: If you were on a jury, what concerns would you have when listening to eyewitness testimony?

39. Activity Earliest Memory

40. Discussion: What are some possible explanations for why adults don’t have memories for experiences that occurred early in childhood?

41. Memory Activities Exploratorium

42. The Mind #10 Life Without Memory: The Case of Clive Wearing #11 Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living Without Memory Discussion 23 3

43. Activity Applying Study Skills

44. Applied Memory Study Skills • Distribute rather than mass study time. Study about 20-30 minutes at a time (about one section of a module) rather than 3 hours the night before an exam. • Reinforce rather than punish “good” student behavior. Do something fun (watch TV, talk on the phone, shoot hoops) AFTER you have done your studying.

45. Applied Memory Study Skills • Create a study area. Okay, so you can’t afford one room just for studying. Have a STUDY LAMP that you bring to your kitchen or bedroom when you study. When your lamp is on, you don’t eat, watch TV, talk on the phone, etc. Try the library. Choose an area that is free of distractions. • Become active (reciting, walking, or taking notes) rather than remaining passive while studying. We all have had the experience of reading two pages mindlessly and not remembering a thing we’ve read. Put your brain in gear. Ask yourself questions about the material, ask questions during class, make flashcards, arrange study groups.

46. Applied Memory Study Skills • Discover meaning rather than merely memorizing. • Can you do the concept reviews and summary tests without looking at the answers? • Do you understand what the material means well enough to answer the study questions? • Try to put the lecture or textual material into your own words. • Take time to integrate new material with concepts that you already understand.

47. Applied Memory Study Skills • Use mnemonics (techniques to improve recall). • Employ acronyms (FOIL, ROY G BIV) • Use peg words • Utilize the method of loci • Eliminate interference. Study one subject at a time, space study periods, study before or after sleeping.

48. Applied Memory Study Skills • Understand the concept rather than recognizing having seen it. The most common reason that students FORGET is that they never LEARNED the material in the first place- remember, what’s on a penny?. • SQ4R- Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and wRite. Use this method…our text fits great with it.

49. Applied Memory Study Skills • Overlearn. Studies show that the more one reviews material (even material one has mastered), the better it is remembered and the easier it is to retrieve. This is not to be confused with OVERSTUDYING which is another word for cramming at the last minute. • Encode in as many different ways as possible. - Visual: highlight text, visually arrange notes, use imagery - Auditory: tape record lecture or yourself going over important concepts, teach someone else, use tutoring services - Tactile: rewrite notes or combine lecture notes with textbook information, use hands-on where possible (get a brain model)

50. Applied Memory Study Skills • Take good notes. • Rephrase what the teacher has said in your own words (so that you understand it and can associate it personally). • Write more than what is put on the board or screen (add examples and other students’ questions). • Rewrite your notes after class. • Compare your notes with other students (for missing information or other way of understanding). • Divide your note page vertically so that the left side can be used later for important terms or added notes.