THREE EPISTEMOLOGIES & CONCEPTS

1. THREE EPISTEMOLOGIES & CONCEPTS Positivism Pragmatism Hermeneutics

2. A Paradigm • Represents a patterned set of assumptions concerning reality (ontology), • knowledge of that reality (epistemology), • and the particular ways for knowing about that reality (methodology) • These assumptions and the ways for knowing are untested givens and determine how one engages and comes to understand the world (Guba, 1990)

3. Two Philosophies • By the end of the 19th century two philosophies became dominant in the social sciences: (i) idealism and (ii) empiricism • This period—the belief that people can understand their environment through reason & empirical research • Philosophical idealism originated with the writings of Socrates and Plato • Later Georg Hegel, a German, used idealism in his writings

4. By contrast, empiricism originated with the writings of Aristotle • Gives account of procedures & operations in order to obtain knowledge of things—equating reality and sense perception with the physical world • However, a scientific movement called positivism attacked the speculative philosophies of idealism and empiricism as unscientific • So by 1890, positivism became a dominant social force in Europe advocating scientific methods of research

5. Positivism • Using scientific methods to do social research • Objective ways of knowing--process needs to be rational and scientific • 19th century Enlightenment legacy • Positivists believe that there is little if any methodological difference between social sciences and natural sciences • Societies like nature, operate according to laws • Social theorists: Pierre-Simon Laplace, Auguste Comte, etc

6. Pragmatism • is the teaching of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s • Pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is one which most contributes to the human good, i.e., the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry. • That is theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices • Opposes both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy • Social theorists; William James, John Dewey, etc

7. Hermeneutics • In sociology, means the interpretation and understanding of the meaning of social events • It enjoyed prominence during the 1960s and 70s • as applied to sociology can be traced to the work of Max Weber who coined the term "action" to denote behavior to which the individual attaches subjective meaning • the sociology of knowledge, seeks to understand how one's position in the social structure relates to how one sees the world, e.g., social class, and group memberships.

8. Hermeneutics--continued • Symbolic interaction utilizes hermeneutics by emphasizing how one perceives the world through his or her construction of reality, • most notably promulgated by W.I Thomas' "definition of the situation," which states that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences • Social theorists: Max Weber, Karl Marx, W.I. Thomas, etc

9. summary Type of work & science & outcome • Positivism: rule-following & normal & facts • Pragmatism: tinkering & revolutionary & discoveries • Hermeneutics: discourse & non-science & perspectives

10. Positivism: ideology of normal science with its routinized practices and high task certainty • Pragmatism:

11. A concept • Is a generalized (abstract) idea about concrete objects • Objective phenomena • E.g. suicide rate

12. A construct • Is a generalized (abstract) idea about an entire class of subjective phenomena • E.g. individualism

13. An attribute • Is a specific characteristic that can be associated with a definable entity • E.g. charismatic

14. A dimension • Is the totality of logically related attributes

15. Category • A class or division, e.g., typology(types)

16. A Variable • A characteristic that vary from one subject to another • Something that can change

17. Two types of variables: • Explanatory and extraneous

18. Explanatory variables— • variables that are the objects of the research, I.e., (a) independent variable (x)—the assumed cause (b) dependent variable (y)—the assumed effect—subject of study

19. 2. Extraneous variables— • all the other variables that are not the objects of the research, I.e., (a) control variable (z)—variable that is held constant so that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be further explored, e.g, (1) intervening variable—a variable that links X and Y • (2) antecedent variable—a causal factor that comes before X and Y. • (3) Consequent variable—an effect that comes after X and Y

20. Proposition • Is a statement that describes some relationship between concepts/constructs that are written in the language of conceptualization • P1: proposition one

21. Hypothesis • A testable statement –relationship of variables • Ha = research or alternate hypothesis • Ho = Null hypothesis

22. Theory • A generalized, synthetic, explanatory statement that interrelates a set of other more specific propositions • Theoretical definition: is a stated intention to use a word in a specific way

23. Deductive reasoning Theory to observation From more general ideas to more specific

24. Inductive reasoning Observation to theory From specific ideas to general ones

25. Empirical generalizations Statements that summarize a set of observations Can be derived from literature review

26. Conceptual models Partial theories—offer partial answers to our theoretical questions

27. Operational definition • Methods used to measure a variable, etc. • Nominal definition: an agreed-upon definition of a concept or construct

28. Nomothetic: • Nomothetic and idiographic are terms coined by Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband to describe two distinct approaches to knowledge, each one corresponding to a different intellectual tendency, and each one corresponding to a different branch of academe. • Nomothetic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalize, and is expressed in the natural sciences. It describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena. • Idiographic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify, and is expressed in the humanities. It describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, accidental, and often subjective phenomena. • In sociology, nomothetic explanation presents a generalized understanding of a given case, and is contrasted with idiographic explanation, which presents a full description of a given case.

29. Idiographic:

30. Serendipity: • finding something unexpected and useful while searching for something else entirely • For instance, homelessness & mental illness, etc • used as a sociological method in Anselm L. Strauss’ and Barney G. Glasers’ Grounded Theory • building on ideas by sociologist Robert K. Merton who in Social Theory and Social Structure (1949) claimed that serendipity was an Indian concept.

31. Parsimony: • the least complicated explanation for an observation • For instance, testing of hypotheses • Simple explanations of data, results/findings